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$4.95 


PLEASURE 

BOATING 

AND 

SEAMANSHIP 


• Boat Handling 

• Sailor’s Language 

• Legal Requirements 

• Rules of the Road 

• Aids to Navigation 

• Charts and Compass 

• Marine Engines 

• Marlinspik^ 

• Sailing 

• Weather 

• Radiotelephone 

• Locks and Dams 


POWER 

SAIL 


UNITED STATES.COAST GUARD AUXILIARY 

FIFTH EDITION 



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Copyright ® 1974 

Coast Guard Auxiliary National Board, Inc. 
Washington, D.C. 

Drawings and Diagrams in Chapter 10 Copyright 
® 1971 the Hearst Corporation 

All rights reserved. 

First Printing—September 1971 
Second Printing—Revised—April 1972 
Third Printing—Revised—January 1973 
Fourth Printing—Revised—June 1973 
Fifth Printing Revised—September 1974 

This book, or any part thereof, may not be reproduced 
without written permission of the copyright owner. 

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:- ^ 4-1 64 - ^ 8- 
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 




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Foreword 


mi 51375 


The publication of this text is but one of the means employed by the 
United States Coast Guard Auxiliary in its continuing effort to make it 
possible for serious boating enthusiasts to get more pleasure from 
pleasure boating. 

Among the better known of the Auxiliary’s services are their 

educational courses. The contents of this text provide the basic i_- - 

information taught in the Auxiliary’s most comprehensive public 
education course, the BOATING SKILLS AND SEAMANSHIP 
course. Other Auxiliary publications are geared to the boating 
education requirements of all age groups and to sailing enthusiasts. 

Another service of the Coast Guard Auxiliary is its respected free 
Courtesy Motorboat Examination program. This program develops 
qualified examiners well versed in boating safety requirements. While 
the courtesy examiners provide a comprehensive examination of your 
craft’s safety requirements — at your request — they are not intended to 
be, nor do they pose as, marine surveyors. 

Another service of the Auxiliary is the opportunity presented you 
to seek membership in the organization, the civilian arm of the United 
States Coast Guard. Membership in the Auxiliary provides you the 
opportunity to participate in more comprehensive courses in a wide 
range of subjects. 

It also gives you an opportunity, if you so desire, to volunteer to 
qualify as an instructor, as a courtesy motorboat examiner, and in patrol 
work. It incurs no military obligation or any other obligation for which 
you do not volunteer of your own free will. 


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Preface 


Making this text available to the boating public, outside the 
framework of the United States Coast Guard Auxiliary public 
education course structure, marks a radical departure from the normal 
policies of the Coast Guard Auxiliary. 

The decision to publish this text and to offer it to the public through 
normal commercial outlets was not arrived at without a careful 
examination of the desirability of such an action. There were two 
overriding facts that influenced the Auxiliary to finally “go public”. The 
first was a recognized need for a single source of information, 
comprehensive yet basic, to inform and instruct the average boatman. 
The second was the realization that once a boating enthusiast became 
aware of the scope of the material contained in this text, it would inspire 
him to seek out and attend one of the Auxiliary’s BOATING SKILLS 
AND SEAMANSHIP courses. 

This text, like others used in the Auxiliary’s public and member 
educational efforts, is the product of Auxiliarists and is based on actual 
experience gained “at the helm” as well as on established theory. May it 
serve you well! 



Harold B. Haney c/ 

National Commodore 

United States Coast Guard Auxiliary 


September, 1974 







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Contents 


CHAPTER 1. 
CHAPTER 2. 
CHAPTER 3. 
CHAPTER 4. 
CHAPTER 5. 
CHAPTER 6. 
CHAPTER 7. 
CHAPTER 8. 
CHAPTER 9. 
CHAPTER 10. 
CHAPTER 11. 
CHAPTER 12. 
CHAPTER 13. 


INSIDE BACK 


PAGE 


Foreword . iii 

Preface . v 

Contents . vii 

The Safe Way to Boating Enjoyment . 1 

The Sailors’ Language . 17 

Boat Handling . 29 

Legal Requirements . 55 

Rules of the Road . 71 

Aids to Navigation . 101 ^ cj 

Charts and Compass. 125 ; 2 ^ 

Marine Engines . 141 / 3 ,. 

Marlinspike Seamanship . 157 1 

Sailing . 5. 169 ' 

Weather. 189 ^ ; 

Radiotelephone . 201 ^ "3 

Locks and Dams . 223 : - 

Index . 237 7 

Color Inserts of Buoys and Day Markers. 245 

COVER 


International Code Flags & Phonetic Alphabet 


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CHAPTER 


1 


The Safe Way to Boating Enjoyment 


Introduction 

Pleasure boating as a family sport is growing in 
popularity with each passing day. Our modem in¬ 
dustrial technology has given us more leisure time 
than ever before in our history. As a result, Ameri¬ 
can families in ever-increasing numbers are turning 
to the water for their recreation. They are finding 
that boating is one of the few outdoor sports that 
can be enjoyed as a family—it’s as much fun for 
mom and dad as it is for the youngsters. 

In recent years, refinements in hull design and 
modem production methods have placed safe, well- 
designed pleasure craft of every description within 
the reach of a vast multitude of Americans. It is 
safe to say that if the present trend continues we 
will soon become a nation of boat owners. 

In order to serve the needs and comforts of our 
expanding boating population, marinas and marine 
facilities can now be found on every body of navi¬ 
gable water in the country. These marinas offer a 
variety of products and services to help make it 
pleasant and convenient for families to enjoy the 
sport of pleasure boating. Reputable manufacturers 
and dealers of marine products offer an endless anay 
of equipment and accessories to make our boating 
safer and more trouble free. In addition, several 
boating-safety oriented organizations now make it 
possible to learn the rudiments of safe boating in 
an organized manner in classes designed especially 
for the beginner-boatman. The United States Coast 
Guard Auxiliary is among the leaders in this en¬ 
deavor. Tire purpose of these courses is to introduce 
to all owners and operators of pleasure craft, safety 
requirements and safe practices in the operation and 
navigation of their boats. The secret of boating 
safety is KEEPING OUT of trouble rather than 
GETTING OUT of trouble after you get into it. 


Boating Accidents 

Unfortunately it is a fact that some of our pleas¬ 
ure boatmen do manage to get into trouble afloat 
and, in some cases, end up as “statistics” in the 
local press. 

Every year the United States Coast Guard 
publishes a BOATING STATISTICS REPORT. 
This report is called Coast Guard Publication CG- 
357, and copies of this report are available to the 
public on request to Commandant (G-BD), U.S. 
Coast Guard, Washington, D.C. 20590. This report 
covers accident reports from all fifty states and also 
includes the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico. 

In 1973, for example, there were 5,322 boating 
accidents involving 6,738 vessels. These accidents 
resulted in 1,754 fatalities, 1,599 personal injuries 
and over 11.4 million dollars in property damage. A 
lot of lives, injuries and money! Can this be 
prevented? The answer is an emphatic YES! Most 
boating accidents are the result of a lack of 
knowledge on the part of the boatman. Let’s look 
briefly at the record in each category. 

Fatalities 

The record shows that year after year more lives 
are lost as the result of vessels capsizing than any 
other type of casualty. Why do vessels capsize? In 
most cases it’s the operator who is to blame. Im¬ 
proper loading and overloading are the principal 
reasons, and ignoring weather warnings ranks next. 
Unfavorable weather and sea conditions which ex¬ 
ceed the capabilities of the craft and the operator’s 
training or experience cause many boats to capsize. 
Even under the best of conditions, if a boat is over¬ 
loaded or improperly loaded, it can (and all too 
often does) capsize without warning. 


1 


Weight Carrying Capability 

When loading your boat, weight should be evenly 
distributed from bow (front) to stern (baek) and 
athwartships (from side to side). The more weight 
you put into a boat, the deeper it sinks into the 
water, thus redueing the amount of freeboard. 
Freeboard is the vertieal distanee from the gunwale 
(pronouneed gun’l), or top edge of the hull, to the 
water. The more you reduee the freeboard, the 
greater the tendeney to swamp (fill with water) or 
eapsize. If a boat is overloaded or improperly loaded 
it will usually be diffieult to steer. Many boats today 
have a eapaeity plate, generally on the instrument 
panel where it ean be easily seen, whieh indicates 
its weight-carr}ang capacity. Remember, this is the 
recommended maximum weight. Whether you 
should carry this amount of weight depends on 
several factors. 

The first factor to consider is the anticipated 
sea-state, or water conditions. It is logical to deduce 
that if rough water is expected, less weight should 
be carried. A heavily laden boat will ship water 
more easily than one which is riding higher in the 
water. 


The second factor to consider would be the activ¬ 
ity in which you expect to engage while under way. 
P'or instance, if you wanted to do some fishing it’s 
possible that persons will stand up occasionally in 
the boat. Standing up in a small boat is not es¬ 
pecially dangerous if it is done carefully in calm 
water conditions, and if the boat is not too heavily 
laden. By standing up you will change the center 
of gravity of the boat and, if the hull is being 
buffeted about appreciably, it could cause the boat 
to capsize, or for you to fall overboard. 

Other factors would be the weight of the equip¬ 
ment, fuel, tools, food and other gear which will be 
carried. The more gear that is loaded aboard, the 
less passenger-carrying capacity you will have left. 
A rough guide for weight-cariying capacity would 
be as follows: 


/ioat Length 
10 feet 
12 feet 
14 feet 
16 feet 


Number of Persons OR Maximum Weight Load 


2 

3 

4 

5 


410 lbs 
575 lbs 
740 ll>s 
975 lbs 


In the absence of a capacity plate, there is a rough 
double check which, if properly used, could help 
prevent overloading: 




First, a check on the number of persons: 

Boat length in feet x maximum width in feet= (No. of persons) 
15 

The results, taken to the nearest whole number, 
give the number of persons that can be carried safely 
in good weather conditions. This readily-calculated 
expression gives reasonable results for a wide variety 
of boat types 

Second, one must also check to be certain that 
the weight-carrying capacity is adequate for that 
number of persons, taking into account their actual 
weight in addition to the weight of the engine, 
fuel and equipment. 

The weight-carrying capacity of a small boat hav¬ 
ing a conventional hull can be checked by determin¬ 
ing the allowable weight in pounds as follows: 

7.5 X L X B X De = (Allowable pounds for persons, 

engine, fuel and equipment) 
In the above, let: L = Overall length in feet and tenths of feet 
B = Maximum width in feet and tenths of 

feet 

De = Minimum effective depth of the boat in 
feet and tenths of feet 


Measure “De” vertically at the lowest point that 
the water can enter. This is usually at the stern or at 
the transom cut-out. 

After you have obtained the weight-carrying 
capacity of your boat, either by using the above 
formula or by reference to the capacity plate, check 
the total intended load against this limit by com¬ 
pleting the following table: 

TOTAL WEIGHT CAPACITY TABLE 


1. Weight-carrying capacity of boat .lbs 

Add weight of: 

Motor .lbs 

Battery .lbs 

Fuel tank and fuel (gas z= 6 Ibs/gal) lbs 

Equipment, anchor, oars, radio, etc .lbs 

2. Total .lbs 

3. Remaining weight available for persons 

(Subtract 2 from 1) .lbs 

BUT NOT MORE THAN 

Boat length in feet x maximum width in feet z= (No. of persons) 


15 


In a particular loading situation you should ob¬ 
serve whichever value sets the lower limit. 


1-3 OUTBOARD PLATE 


1-2 INBOARD OR 

INBOARD/OUTBOARD PLATE* 


r I HVCm^ BOAT CO 


MODEL JICI9 


SERIAL 100-3 


THIS BOAT IS BUILT TO ACCOMMODATE UNDER NORMAL 
CON DITIONS AN OUTBOARD MOTOR OF NOT MORE THAN 
■5M 0BC CERTIFIED HORSEPOWER AND 
PERSONS AT 150 LBS. PER PERSON 
A PROPERLY LOCATED MAX. WEIGHT OF 
LBS. FOR PERSONS, MOTOR AND GEAR. 


^40 


THIS BOAT IS BUILT TO ACCOMMODATE 
UNDER NORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS 
IBI PERSONS AT 150 LBS. PER PERSON 
KOI A PROPERLY LOCATED MAX. WEIGHT OF 
KlililLBS. FOR PERSONS AND GEAR. 


OUTBOARD BOATING 


/OB^ 


CLUB OF AMERICA 


3 


This plate is one type offered to participants 
of the OBC Boat Rating Program. 





























For rough weather eonditions it is advisable to 
carry considerably less than the maximum allowable 
weight. If rough water is expected, one should give 
serious consideration to whether the boat should be 
used at all. This is particularly true for boats under 
ten feet in length which may be suitable for calm 
conditions only. 

Weather Conditions 

At selected locations in and near boating areas, 
storm warnings are displayed by flag hoists or lights. 
Display points may be Coast Guard stations, mar¬ 


inas, lighthouses or municipal piers. Boatmen 
should become familiar with the display points in 
their area and the meanings of the signals displayed. 
The small craft advisory is a red triangular pennant 
by day and a red light over a white light by night. 
The display of this signal means that conditions are 
expected to be unsafe for small craft. Don’t ignore 
this warning. 

As an aid to boatmen in getting weather informa¬ 
tion, the U. S. Weather Bureau publishes COAST¬ 
AL WARNING FACILITIES CHARTS for local 
areas on the Atlantic, Pacific and Gulf Coasts as 


SMALL CRAFT 


STORM 


S 


DAYTIME SIGNAL NIGHT SIGNAL 

One RED pennant displayed by day and a RED 
light over a WHITE light at night to indicate 
winds as high as 33 knots (38 m.p.h.) and/or 
sea conditions considered dangerous to small 
craft operations are forecast for the area. 



□ 


DAYTIME SIGNAL 



NIGHT SIGNAL 


A single square RED flag with a BLACK center 
displayed during daytime and two RED lights 
at night to indicate that winds 48 knots 
(55 m.p.h.) and above are forecast for the 
area. If the winds are associated with a tropical 
cyclone (hurricane), the "Storm Warning" 
display indicates winds 48 to 63 knots (55 to 
73 m.p.h.) are forecast. 


HURRICANE 


GALE 



DAYTIME SIGNAL NIGHT SIGNAL 

Two RED pennants displayed by day and a 
WHITE light above a RED light at night to 
indicate winds within the range 34 to 47 knots 
(39 to 54 m.p.h.) are forecast for the area. 



Displayed only in connection with a tropical 
cyclone (hurricane). Two square RED flags 
with BLACK centers displayed by day and a 
WHITE light between two RED lights at night 
to indicate that winds 64 knots (74 m.p.h.) and 
above are forecast for the area. 


1-4 Warning Display Signals 


4 
















well as the Great Lakes, Puerto Rico and Hawaii. 
These charts give the locations and telephone num¬ 
bers of all Weather Bureau offices and the location 
and time schedules of all AM, FM and TV stations 
that broadcast marine weather information. Also 
included are the weather broadcast schedules of 
marine radiotelephone stations and air navigation 
radio stations. Additionally, the location of all storm 
warning display stations are also shown, with an 
explanation of their meanings. These charts can be 
obtained by writing to the Superintendent of Docu¬ 
ments, Government Printing Office, Washington, 
D.G., 20401, and stating the local area desired. 
Each chart costs ten cents. 

Weather sense begins before leaving your slip. 
Most centers of boating activity have a nearby 
Weather Bureau office which provides marine wea¬ 
ther forecasts by phone 24 hours a day. A phone 
call to the local weather bureau should be a part of 
every boatman’s routine preparations before cast¬ 
ing off. All Coast Guard radio stations that broad¬ 
cast routine weather and marine information do so 
on frequency 2670 kHz. These broadcasts are 
-usually made at scheduled times and are preceded 
by a preliminary call on frequency 2182 kHz an¬ 
nouncing the forthcoming weather broadcasts on 


frequency 2670 kHz. Urgent warnings are trans¬ 
mitted immediately and may be sent on frequency 
2182 kHz. If you are underway and happen to miss 
the Coast Guard weather broadcast, you may still 
be able to get your weather from the local telephone 
company marine operator by radiotelephone at 
nominal cost. 

Falls Overboard 

Falls overboard and vessel sinkings were the sec¬ 
ond and third major types of casualties resulting in 
boating fatalities. As a boat operator, you must rec¬ 
ognize these dangers and learn how to avoid them. 
As stated previously, improper loading and over¬ 
loading are the principal causes of falls overboard 
and vessel capsizings. 

Collisions 

Of 829 (1972) personal injury cases, about hall 
were attributed to collisions. The principal cause ol 
a vessel colliding with another vessel or with a fixed 
object is failure of the operator to maintain an effi¬ 
cient forward lookout. Water skiing has contributed 
significantly to this problem. It’s impossible to 
watch the skier and the area ahead of the boat at 
the same time. Some states have enacted laws which 



1-5 Speed and Inattention 

5 






require a wide-angle rear view mirror, or a second 
person in the boat to watch the skier. Some states 
also limit the number of skiers that may be towed 
at one time. 

If your boat is equipped with an automatic pilot, 
don’t set it and forget it. An automatic pilot is an 
ingenious instrument but it will not steer around 
obstructions nor take over for you in a potential col¬ 
lision stiuation with another boat. There is no 
mechanical replacement for the operator. 

Fires and Explosions 

Fires and explosions resulted in the second largest 
number of personal injuries. A number of things 
can cause a fire aboard your boat. Among these are 
careless smoking, spontaneous combustion caused 
by oil or gasoline soaked rags or paper left aboard 
instead of being disposed of on shore, an electrical 
short, a flame-up of the galley stove or ignition of 
gasoline that has not been contained properly. 
Explosions occur when there is the correct mixture 
of gasoline and air, and this explosive vapor is ig¬ 
nited by a spark. A gas tank could leak at any time 


and, if the engine is running, ignition is introduced 
to the situation. Remove any one of these ingredi¬ 
ents and you will not have an explosion. Perhaps the 
best way to prevent an explosion is to keep the gaso¬ 
line and air mixture from reaching the explosive 
point. This is accomplished by thoroughly ventilat¬ 
ing the areas where explosive mixtures are most 
likely to form. Gasoline vapors are heavier than air 
and will seek the lowest parts of the bilge spaces. 
Consequently, these areas are the ones that must 
be well ventilated. 

Correct Fueling Procedures 

In spite of the fact that regulations concerning 
ventilation of engine and fuel tank spaces are now 
being clarified and widely enforced, many boats 
explode every year. Most explosions in inboard 
powered boats occur shortly after refueling. Refuel¬ 
ing is dangerous. But, if certain precautions are care¬ 
fully observed, many of the potential hazards of 
refueling can be controlled. 

1. Be sure that the boat is moored securely to the 
fuel float or wharf. 



1-6 A Fractured 
Fuel Line and 
A Loose Battery 
Cable Connection. 


6 





2. Extinguish all fires aboard the boat. This 
means cigarettes, cigars, pipes, galley stoves and 
other appliances which have an open flame. Also, 
turn off all electric motors which may be running. 

3. Close all doors, windows, portlights, hatches 
or other openings which may allow fumes to enter 
the bilge spaces of the boat. 

4. Remove the gas filler cap and secure it so that 
it will not fall overboard. Estimate the approximate 
number of gallons the tank will take. This is a pre¬ 
caution against taking on more gas than your tank 
should hold. If this should happen, lift a hatch and 
inspect the bilges immediately to see where the gas 
is going! Gasoline flowing through the fill pipe 
could create static electricity. While fueling, it is 
imperative that you do not allow static electricity 
to build up and discharge. This can be controlled 
by grounding the hose nozzle firmly against the fuel 
pipe intake fitting. A fuel hose should never be left 
unattended while fuel is flowing through the hose. 
Even though some nozzles are equipped with shut¬ 
off devices which shut off the flow when the tank is 
full, if the nozzle were to slip out of the fill pipe it 
'Could be pouring gasoline over the side or into your 
boat. While fueling, it is good practice to watch for 
gasoline fumes which should be coming out of the 
fuel tank vent pipe. This vent pipe should vent 
overboard. If you do not see fumes the vent may be 
plugged and should be cleaned. Wlien the tank is 
nearly full, gasoline may discharge from the vent, 
which is not unusual. This gasoline may discolor 
your paint in addition to being a fire hazard, so it 
should be washed down as soon as possible. 

5. When the tank is full, replace the filler cap 
and wipe up any gasoline that may have spilled. 
Then wash down the area thoroughly. Place gasoline 
soaked rags in a tightly sealed metal container and 
dispose of them later on shore. 

6. Open all portlights, hatches, doors and win¬ 
dows. This should allow any fumes which may have 
entered the closed areas to escape. If you have a 
bilge blower, turn it on. Allow the boat to ventilate 
for at least five minutes. Then check the bilge areas 
for fumes. Remember, gasoline vapors are heavier 
than air and will seek the lowest point in the boat. 
Even though it may appear undignified, stick your 
nose down in the bilge and check for vapors. Expen¬ 


sive bilge-sniffing devices are fine, but they are not 
infallible. 

7. After you have done all of the above and are 
satisfied that there are no fumes present, you may 
start the engine. 

Outboard powered boats with portable fuel tanks 
should not be fueled with the tanks in the boat. 
Portable fuel tanks should be lifted out of the boat 
and placed on the wharf to be fueled. Do not at¬ 
tempt to do the job alone. Pass the tank to the at¬ 
tendant on the wharf and, after fueling, have it 
passed back to you. Don't forget to secure the tank 
and wipe up and wash down any fuel which may 
have spilled. If there are any decked-over areas on 
the boat be certain to ventilate thoroughly for at 
least five minutes before starting the engine. 

To review briefly the safe fueling practices: 

1. Boat moored securely. 

2. All flames extinguished. 

3. All openings closed. 

4. Hose nozzle grounded. 

5. Wipe up and wash down. 

6. Ventilate thoroughly, check for fumes. 

7. Start engine. 

Unsafe fueling practices, lack of experience, faul¬ 
ty fuel tank installations, and improper wiring of 
engines and equipment accounted for more than 
60% of vessel explosions and fires in cases where the 
cause of the accident could be determined. 

Personal Flotation Devices 

All federal, state and local laws require at least 
one Coast Guard approved personal flotation de¬ 
vice aboard and readily available for every person 
on board the boat. In 1973, 1,734 persons 

drowned in boating accidents. Of these 47.2% were 
known to have had personal flotation devices 
available. 81.7% of the victims did not use the 
available devices or used them improperly. Of 
those who drowned, 20.7% were known not to 
have had personal devices available, and in the case 
of 32.1% of the victims, it is not known whether or 
not a personal flotation device was available. Most 
boatmen comply with the law which requires them 
to have an adequate number of Coast Guard 
approved personal flotation devices aboard. How- 


7 


ever, in all too many cases these devices were 
stowed in places where they could not be grabbed 
quickly when needed. In numerous other instances 
nobody knew how to use them. Personal flotation 
devices are effective only when available and 
properly used. These devices should be treated as 
though your life may well depend on them. 

How to Enjoy Your Boat Safely 

Cruising 

Cruising is the most popular form of pleasure 
boating. Places to go, sights to see, fresh air, relaxa¬ 
tion and family fun; these are the ingredients of 
pleasure cruising. You may cruise along a shore or 
you may strike out across open waters. Carefree 
days afloat should not end in tragedy. You can 
insure this by taking a few simple precautions. 
Avoid becoming a “statistic” by paying attention to 
some common-sense rules for safe cruising: 

Before shoving off, study your chart for places of 
shelter in case of bad weather. Be sure that you have 
enough fuel to get where you intend to go. It’s a 


good idea to have twice as much as you will need, to 
allow for water conditions which may cause you to 
use more fuel than anticipated. Be sure that your 
compass is operating properly and don’t place metal 
objects nearby which could deflect the compass and 
give you a false heading. Learn to trust your com¬ 
pass. If properly maintained it’s a very reliable in¬ 
strument. 

Have plenty of line on board so that you may 
properly secure the boat wherever your journey may 
take you. If your boat is wired for 110-volt shore 
power be sure to have extra extension cords aboard, 
as you may be required to tie up some distance 
from a power outlet. It is also advisable to carry a 
double outlet and spare fuses. If a number of boats 
are using the same outlet, the voltage to your boat 
may be low and, as a result, cooking on an electric 
stove may take longer than expected. If you have 
an electric refrigerator, low voltage could cause the 
unit to overheat. Also, be certain that no electric 
cords are allowed to hang down into the water. 

If you cannot find space along a wharf, it may be¬ 
come necessary to anchor overnight. It is best not to 



1-8 Life Vest. 


1-9 Cushion. 


1-10 Life Preserver. 



8 






1-11 Forward Lookout. 

attempt this unless weather conditions are good. If 
possible, put down two anchors, a bow anchor and 
a stern anchor. This will keep your boat from swing- 
ing around with changes in the wind or current, and 
possibly colliding with another boat. The art of 
anchoring is discussed in some detail in Chapter 
Three, BOAT HANDLING. If it is impossible or 
undesirable to anchor, you may consider asking a 
fellow boatman whose boat is tied to a wharf if you 
can tie up to his boat. This is the nautical version 
of “double parking” and is known as rafting. Sev¬ 
eral boats can be rafted together. If yours is the boat 
moored next to the wharf be sure that your mooring 
lines are in good condition and of a size capable of 
taking the extra strain which will be placed on them 
by virtue of the additional boats moored alongside. 

If you receive permission to raft alongside a boat 
already moored, be sure to rig enough fenders be¬ 
tween the boats to prevent damage to both boats. 
Do not make a nuisance of yourself by continually 
crossing the other boat to get to the wharf and, above 
all, don’t keep persons on the boat alongside awake 
half of the night. If you ask permission to raft and * 
are refused, it’s very likely that someone before you 
forgot these few rules of common courtesy. 


What are the hazards of cruising? The most 
common type of accident while cruising is collision 
with another vessel. Failure to maintain an efficient 
forward lookout, or careless and negligent opera¬ 
tion on the part of the operator, are the major causes 
of most collisions. The second most common type is 
collision with a fixed object. There is little excuse for 
this type of accident but in 1973, 2,853 vessels 
collided with other vessels and 599 vessels collided 
with fixed objects. All told, 684 persons lost their 
lives in cruising accidents in 1973. 

Hunting and Fishing 

Hunters and fishermen often use their boats as a 
form of conveyance rather than for boating enjoy¬ 
ment. Many of them are not aware of the potential 
dangers of boating and, as a result, it is estimated 
that in the last few years hunters and fishermen 
have been involved in approximately 30% of all 
boating accidents. The Coast Guard Auxiliary is 
now offering a One-Lesson Course entitled BASIC 
BOATING FOR HUNTERS AND FISHER¬ 
MEN. It is hoped that this Course will help to 
reduce this 30% accident rate. Hunters and fisher¬ 
men often become so engrossed in their sport that 
they forget all about the weather. If they happen 
to notice the weather, they may think they can beat 
the weather and make it back safely to shore. Many 
times they find themselves on the sheltered side of 
an island or in a sheltered cove. When they start 
their journey back they are surprised by the water 
conditions on the unsheltered side which must be 
contended with in order to get back to port. Hunt¬ 
ers and fishermen are well advised to wait in shel¬ 
tered waters until sea conditions improve before 
attempting to return home. It could save their lives! 

Fishermen may get fishing lines tangled around 
the propeller, rudder, outboard engine or anchor 
line. In attempting to disengage these lines they 
often lean too far over the side, with the result that 
falls overboard are commonplace. To compound 
this even further, fishing lines sometimes get tan¬ 
gled around a fisherman who has fallen in the water, 
thus seriously impairing his ability to swim. Most. 
hunters and fishermen carry a sharp sheath knife. 
This knife should be kept in the sheath at all times 
when it is not actually being used. This knife could 
be used to cut the lines and possibly save his life. 


9 


A hunter should be careful about standing up in 
a small boat to shoot. The recoil could knock him 
overboard. Most high-powered rifles and shotguns 
recoil considerably and should be fired from a sitting 
position in a small boat. By using common sense 
most tragedies might be averted, with the result that 
more hunting and fishing trips could have a happy 
ending. 

Swimming 

Some boatmen use their boats as swimming and 
diving platforms. A secluded cove with deep, clear 
water can be most attractive. Swimming and diving 
are a lot of fun but common sense should not be 
overlooked. It is usually best to anchor the boat 
before the swimming party begins. If yours is a 
shallow draft boat (one which can float in very shal¬ 
low water), the wind could cause the boat to drift 
away at a good rate of speed. One person should 
remain aboard to act as a life guard and to see that 
the anchor doesn’t drag. It is good practice to tie a 
long line to a life ring and secure the other end to 
the boat. This should be allowed to drift in the area 
of the swimmers. Before anyone dives in, the best 
swimmer aboard should enter the water cautiously 
to determine the depth as well as inspect the bottom 
for underwater obstructions. Swimming and sun 
bathing are as synonymous as sun bathing and sun¬ 
burn. The sun’s rays reflecting off the water, as well 
as its direct rays, can result in a serious sunburn in 
a very short time. Keep sunbathing periods shorter 
than usual and make sure the first aid kit contains 
ointments for use in such cases. 

Racing 

Racing is another type of pleasure boating. 
Racing takes many forms and the fastest boat is not 
always the winner. Among motor boatmen, the pre¬ 
dicted log race is very popular. The object of a pre¬ 
dicted log race is accuracy, not speed. The contestant 
is given a course to run that may include various 
check points. Before the start of the race the con¬ 
testant must calculate his “predicted log.” The 
accuracy of his predicted log compared to his actual 
performance is used to determine the winner. An 
observer is assigned to each contestant’s boat and his 
job is to see that no time-measuring instruments are 
used during the race. He is the official timekeeper. 


The contestant must calculate in advance the dis¬ 
tance to be traveled, compass headings to be held, 
speed to be run (taking into consideration water 
conditions and legal speed limits), and any other 
conditions which may be encountered. The con¬ 
testant must then predict the exact time it will 
take him to run the course as well as the exact time 
to each check point. At the finish of the race the 
actual elapsed time is recorded and the predicted 
time is divided into the error to give a percentage 
of error. The lowest percentage of error is the 
winner. Thus you can see that a boat running at a 
slower speed may have a larger time error and end 
up with a lower percentage of error. Sounds easy, 
doesn’t it? Try it! A predicted log race is a great 
leveler. Winners smile quietly while losers loudly 
proclaim that the winners were “just lucky.” Oc¬ 
casionally an inept seaman may have all of his 
mistakes cancel each other out and emerge the win¬ 
ner, but this is a rarity. Those who can consistently 
win or place in predicted log races do so because 
they have taken into consideration all of the factors 
involved. These factors include the vessel’s weight, 
the condition of her bottom (marine growth), 
anticipated wind and current conditions, leeway, 
the time involved in making turns and many other 
considerations. When you can do well in predicted 
log races, you can consider yourself proficient in 
the art of seamanship. This Boating Safety and 
Seamanship Course will help to give you the basic 
knowledge needed to take part in such contests, 
but from there on the application of that knowledge 
is entirely up to you. 

Among sailboats, speed racing is the favorite. Sail 
boats engage in two different types of races. One is 
a closed-course race around buoys or markers and 
the other is an open-course race from one point to 
another. The longer open-course race is usually en¬ 
gaged in by any type of cruising class boat, while the 
closed-course race is restricted to boats of the same 
class. Class is determined by the measurements of 
a boat, taking into consideration such factors as the 
sail area, draft, beam, overall length and length at 
the water line. Each boat in its class is assigned a 
handicap and this handicap is applied to the time 
the boat makes in a race. Rules for sail boat racing 
may be obtained from the North American Yacht 
Racing Union at 37 West 44th Street, New York, 


10 


N. Y. 10036. This is the American representative 
to the International Yacht Racing Union which 
governs sail boat racing throughout the world. 

There are also races for power boats where the 
fastest speed wins. Maximum horsepower or engine 
cubic capacity is usually established for each race. 
Rules for these races may be obtained from the 
American Power Boat Association, 2534 St. Aubin 
Street, Detroit, Michigan, 48207. 

Some races cannot be classed as power or sail be¬ 
cause they involve what is known as “slave labor.” 
Rowboat races are popular in many parts of country, 
and shell racing may be found on rivers, lakes and 
sheltered waters. These are endurance races in the 
sense that they test physical strength and muscular 
co-ordination. For the average American boatman 
these are best enjoyed in the role of a spectator 
rather than that of a participant! 

Water Skiing 

Water skiing is increasing in popularity in all 
parts of the country. Skiers skim over the water at 
sj)eeds of 25 knots and upwards. Two skis, slalom, 
backwards, no hands-real fun! How safe? It can be 
very safe if the skier wears a Coast Guard approved 
personal flotation device and the boat operator 
knows what he is doing. Here are a few pointers 
which will insure your safety without spoiling your 
fun; 

1. Install a wide-angle, rear-view mirror or take 
along a second person in the boat to watch the 
skier. In this way an efficient watch can be main¬ 
tained both fore and aft. Some states require the 
mirror or an observer as a matter of law. 

2. Don’t tow a skier in heavily traveled or re¬ 
stricted waters such as anchorages, swimming or 
fishing areas, narrow winding channels or around 
piers, floats or buoys. 

3. Make sure that the skier is wearing a Coast 
Guard approved personal flotation device. If he 
tumbles, the boat should come about and approach 
him from the lee side. 

4. Stop the engine before taking the skier on 
board. 

5. While taking the skier on board be careful 


not to swamp the boat. In smaller craft it is usually 
safer to take a person aboard over the stern. 

The following set of hand signals is recommended 
by the American Water Ski Association: 

F.\STER — Palm pointing upward. 

SLOWER — Palm pointing downward. 

SPEED O. K. — Arm upraised with thumb and forefinger 
forming a circle. 

RIGHT TURN — Arm outstretched pointing to the right. 
LEFT TURN — Arm outstretched pointing to the left. 
BACK TO DROP OFF .AREA — .Arm at 45 degree angle from 
body pointing down to water and swinging. 

CUT MOTOR — Finger drawn across the throat. 

STOP — Hand up, palm forward, policeman style. 

SKIER O. K. AFTER FALL - Hands clenched overhead. 
PICK ME UP, OR FALLEN SKIER - WATCH OUT - One 
ski extended vertically out of the water. 

(See page 12 for Illustration) 


Skin Diving 

A relatively new flag is appearing on our waters. 
It has a red-orange background with a white diago¬ 
nal stripe from corner to corner. This is the divers’ 
flag, \^^en you see it flying from a boat, or from a 
float, do not approach too closely or attempt to 
pass between the flag and the nearby shore. This 
flag indicates that there are divers down in the area 
and it requests you to keep clear. If you have ever 
seen a person who has been cut by a boat’s pro¬ 
peller, you will not easily forget it. 



1-12 Beware—Diving in Area. 


11 






1-13 Water Ski Hand Signals 


SPEED 


FASTER 


SLOWER 




LEFT TURN 







Proper Selection of a Boat 

The key to boating enjoyment is to have a boat 
that is exactly right for you and your family, and 
the kind of boating you intend to do. Another thing 
to consider is the water conditions in your boating 
area. A boat that is adequate for a small inland lake 
might not be safe on an unsheltered body of water. 
A boat that does not have sleeping or cooking facil¬ 
ities would not make a good cruising boat. A boat 
designed for a top speed of 18 knots will not be a 
good ski boat. A family of eight is not very safe in a 
14-foot boat. 

A boat should be purchased because it fits your 
needs and not because it "is offered at a bargain 
price. Be sure that it is large enough to accommo¬ 
date your family and guests. Many boats are 
equipped with a capacity plate which will indicate 
the recommended size of the engine and the num¬ 
ber of pounds the craft is designed to carry safely. 
To exceed the recommendations of the capacity 
plate is to be asking for trouble. Overpowering an 
outboard boat with an engine that is obviously too 
large and too heavy will have the effect of reducing 
freeboard at the engine well and your boat could be 
swamped by taking water over the stern if stopped 
quickly. The stern wave could roll right in. If you 
are in doubt concerning the condition of a boat that 
you are thinking of buying, the best thing to do is 
to employ the services of a licensed marine surveyor. 
The surveyor will give you a complete report on 
the condition of the boat. He will look for things 
like rot, cracked or broken frames, split planking 
and mechanical defects. A good survey could save 
many dollars in the long run. 

Practical Hints for Safe Boating 

Keep in mind at all times that everything that is 
done and everything that is used on a boat affects 
the safety, not only of those aboard, but also those 
nearby. 

If your boat is small, remember that you must 
board it by stepping into the center of the bottom, 
not onto a gunwale or seat. Never jump into a boat. 
Don’t stand up in a small boat without hanging on, 
and don’t rock the boat just to show off. Use a 
safety chain or cable on the outboard engine. En¬ 
gines have been known to come loose occasionally. 


Get a Courtesy Examination. To be doubly 
sure that your boat and equipment meet the 
minimum safety requirements, ask for a free 
Coast Guard Auxiliary Courtesy Examination. The 
Auxiliarist will examine your boat for compliance 
with federal regulations and certain additional rec¬ 
ommendations which the Auxiliary considers de¬ 
sirable for your safety. If your boat passes the Cour¬ 
tesy Examination, a current Courtesy Examination 
Decal will be placed on the boat. Unless you are 
obviously violating the law. Coast Guard Boating 
Safety Detachments will not normally board any 
vessel displaying a current decal. If your boat does 
not pass, a report will be given to you indicating the 
areas in which your boat or equipment was found 
to be deficient. No record of this examination is 
made nor kept by the Auxiliarist and no report is 
made to any law enforcement agency including the 
Coast Guard. 


COURTESY 




1-14 Seal of Safety. 


Know your boat. Know what it can do and what 
it cannot do, and how it will handle in all kinds of 
weather. Don’t load more weight aboard than rec¬ 
ommended by the capacity plate. The ideal boat 
should have positive buoyancy. This means that it 
should float even if filled with water or capsized. 

Leave a float plan with a friend or relative before 
departing on a boating outing. Don’t simply hand 
it to a bystander on the wharf. Be sure that you 
leave it with someone who will miss you if you do 
not return on time. A float plan should include the 
following information: (a) where you intend to 
cruise; (b) a description of your boat and your state 
registration number; (c) communication equipment 
aboard and radio call sign if you have one; (d) the 


13 






names of all persons on board; (e) safety equipment 
carried; (f) the estimated time of arrival at your 
destination or return; and (g) your alternate plans 
in the event of an emergency or in case of bad 
weather. 

Be defensive against causes of fires and explosions. 
Three steps are necessary to reduce the chance of 
flammable vapors collecting in your boat: (a) have 
a safe fuel system aboard and maintain it in good 
condition; (b) observe all safety precautions in 
handling volatile fuels; and (c) have a good ventila¬ 
tion system to conduct fresh air into each fuel tank 
and engine compartment to remove vapors from the 
bilges to the open atmosphere. Three of the fed¬ 
eral requirements for motor boats (flame arresters, 
fire extinguishers and adequate ventilation) are in¬ 
tended to minimize the danger of fire and explosion. 
This is sufficient evidence of the seriousness of the 
fire and explosion hazards in engine and fuel tank 
compartments. The galley is another potential fire 
hazard. Electric, alcohol, kerosene, butane, coal and 
wood burning cooking appliances are recommended 
types for use on boats. Gasoline stoves should never 
be used. The stove should be fastened securely in 
place. The counter top and bulkheads (vertical par¬ 
titions) around the stove should be protected with a 
fire-proof material. Curtains and draperies which 
are near the stove should be of flame retardant ma¬ 
terial and should be tied back before lighting the 
stove. Do not place a fire extinguisher on a bulk¬ 
head in such a position that you must reach through 
a fire to get to it. Mount it nearby where it can be 
easily grasped. Fire extinguishers should be checked 
and serviced regularly, and as soon as possible after 
use. 

Be sure to provide personal flotation devices for 
all hands aboard. These should be Coast Guard 
approved and kept readily available and in good 
condition. This applies to all boats, regardless of 
size. Prudent boatmen generally carry more per¬ 
sonal flotation devices than they expect to need. It 
is better to have a few extra devices aboard and not 
need them than to need them and not have them. 
Personal flotation devices should be worn by all 
hands when boating conditions are hazardous, and 
by children and non-swimmers at all times while 
under way. In addition to the equipment required 
by law you should also have a good first aid kit, a 
good local chart, a flash light, distress flares, a 


paddle or oars, extra shear pins, a bailer or bucket, 
an extra anchor and plenty of anchor line, mooring 
lines, fenders, a good tool kit, a compass, reserve 
fuel and extra spark plugs, emergency water and 
emergency food rations, and a transistor radio 
capable of receiving on the marine band. These 
would be considered the minimum requirements 
and, if you give the matter some thought, you will 
think of many more items you would want to have 
along. 

Know and obey state and federal boating laws. 
Nautical traffic laws are known as RULES OF THE 
ROAD. These rules differ aeeording to where you 
do your boating. You should beeome eonversant 
with the set of rules whieh applies to your loeal 
waters and you should abide by them. 

Load your boat properly. Large steamships have 
capsized when all passengers rushed to one side. The 
load must be distributed properly if the boat is to 
handle well. Watch your freeboard. Many small 
boats have swamped or capsized when they were 
loaded to the point where they had insufficient 
freeboard. 

Pay attention to your boat handling. High speed 
and sharp turns are frequent causes of accidents on 
water as well as on shore. Keep an eye on your wake. 
Even the wake of a small outboard boat can cause 
damage to others. You could be held legally liable 
for any damage caused by your wake. Keep away 
from swimmers and divers. Slow down when passing 
fishing boats. When passing sailboats, don’t pass 
between the sailboat and the wind. Pass to leeward 
(the downwind side). Keep well clear of large ves¬ 
sels and tows. Their wakes are dangerous to small 
craft. Do not allow passengers to ride on the bow 
deck or on the gunwales. Any sudden motion of the 
boat could cause them to fall overboard. 

Carry two anchors with plenty of line. When 
anchoring, lower the anchor over the side hand over 
hand—don’t throw it. Anchor well clear of navigable 
channels and don’t forget to light your anchor light 
at night. Anchor lights will be discussed in the 
chapter on Rules of the Road. 

Respect the weather. Listen to marine forecasts 
and heed weather warnings. Even rivers can get 
rough, particularly if a strong wind blows upstream. 
In bad weather head for the nearest harbor or find 


14 


a spot in the shelter of an island and wait until the 
worst is over. 

Keep a good lookout. Failure to do so is the 
eause of most collisions. Your primary consideration 
should be the area ahead and on the right side of 
your boat. Vessels approaching from the right (star¬ 
board) side have the right of way over your boat 
and you should keep clear of them. This will be dis¬ 
cussed in the chapter on RULES OF THE ROAD. 
It’s a good idea to look all around the horizon occa¬ 
sionally to see what is going on around you. 

Keep clear of fixed obstructions. When passing 
under a bridge keep well away from the piers. Por¬ 
tions of caissons and pilings used in the construction 
of the bridge may be just under the surface of the 
water. Also, on large rivers, the water around bridges 
can be turbulent and dangerous. Keep clear of break¬ 
waters and jetties. If your engine should fail while 
near these obstructions your boat could drift into 
them before you could get an anchor down. 

Be familiar with emergency procedures. Familiar¬ 
ize your crew members with them. Without fright- 
,ening them, you could conduct a lifesaving device 
drill. Show them how to adjust the devices so that 
thev will be most effective if needed. It’s best not to 
talk about capsizing since this may frighten your 
crew, but you should have your plans clearly in 


mind in the unlikely event that this might hap¬ 
pen. Your boat will most likely remain afloat and 
you should see to it that nobody attempts to swim 
for shore. Remember, the chance of being located 
by a search plane or boat are far greater if all hands 
stay with the boat and hang on. 

Keep the boat in good condition. Make neces¬ 
sary repairs as required and check all safety equip¬ 
ment regularly. 

And finally, don’t operate a boat while intoxi¬ 
cated. An intoxicated boat operator is just as deadly 
as an intoxicated motorist. Save the libations for the 
time when the anchors are down and securely set, 
or after you have returned safely to your slip. If you 
must drive home, save them until you get there. 
Don’t become another statistic. 

Boating safety is a state of mind. To the safe 
boatman, safety is the first consideration. Think and 
practice safety all the time and soon it will become 
second nature to you. The peace of mind that comes 
from owning a safe, well equipped boat, and know¬ 
ing the proper way to operate it safely, will make 
your boating experiences pleasant and relaxing 
Only then will you join the vast majority of boating 
enthusiasts who say with conviction, 

“SAFE BOATING IS FUN.” 


15 


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CHAPTER 2 


the Sailors' Language 


Introduction 

The sailors' language has been developed over 
the years to the extent that it should be under¬ 
stood if one is to fully enjoy the sport of pleasure 
boating. You will soon discover that a word or 
phrase means one thing to a “land lubber/' and 
quite another thing to a boatman. For example, 
most of us would agree that descending from one 
level to another is going downstairs, and is ac¬ 
complished by means of stairs or steps. To a 
boatman, it is going below using a ladder. 

The terms defined in this chapter should grad¬ 
ually become a part of your boating vocabulary. 
As your boating knowledge increases, you will find 
yourself using many of these terms to describe 
parts of your boat and its equipment. These terms 
may also be used when giving instructions to others 
aboard your boat. The first few times that you use 
a nautical term, explain it carefully so that your 
crew members will know what the term means. 

Basic Terminology 

Listed below are some of the nautical terms 
that you should learn at this time so that you may 
fully understand this chapter and those to follow. 
They are common, everyday terms as far as boating 
is concerned. Each has a specific meaning that 
will be understood by other boatmen. 

The following terms describe parts of a vessel: 

Hull —The body of a vessel exelusive of superstructure 
such as the cabin, flying bridge, masts, etc. 

Bow—The forward part of a vessel. 

Stern —The after part of a vessel. 

Transom —Planking across the stern of a vessel. 


Bottom —The surface of the hull below the waterline. 

Chine —On a flat or vee-bottom boat, the fore-and-aft 
line formed by the intersection of the side and the 
bottom. 

Keel —The principal framing member of a vessel, running 
fore-and-aft the entire length and supporting the 
frames. 

Frames (Ribs)—The curved framing members attached 
to the keel. 

Beams —Strong timbers stretching across the vessel to 
support the decks. 

Deck —The planked floor of a vessel, resting upon the 
beams. 

Gunwale —The top edge of the hull. 

Topsides —The outer surface of the hull from the water¬ 
line to the gunwale. 

Bilges —The lowest internal spaces within a vessel’s hull. 

Bulkhead —A vertical partition aboard a vessel. 

Cockpit —A space or well, sunken below the gunwale line, 
usually in the after portion of the vessel. 

PoRTSiDE —The left hand side of a vessel facing forward. 

Starboard Side —The right hand side of a vessel facing 
forward. 

Portholes —Openings in the vessel’s sides for admission 
of light and air. 

Scuppers —Overboard drain holes on the deck. 

Hatch— An opening in the deck to afford entry to spaces 
below. 

Head —The vessel’s toilet compartment. 

Galley —The area aboard a vessel where cooking is done. 

Ladder —Stairs or steps aboard a vessel. 

Windward Side —The side of the vessel exposed to the 
wind. 

Leeward Side —The side of the vessel sheltered from the 
wind. 

Terms that describe fittings and other equipment 
are: 

Line —Rope that has been put to use aboard a vessel. 


17 


Cleat —An anvil-shaped deck fitting to which lines are 
secured. 

Chock —A deck fitting through which lines are passed. 

Rudder —An underwater vertical blade which can be 
pivoted to steer the vessel. 

Helm —The mechanism by which the vessel is steered, 
including the rudder, wheel, etc. 

Fenders —Pneumatic, rope or other devices hung over 
the side of the vessel to protect it from chafing. 

Fid—A tapered pin, used to open the strands of rope for 
splicing. 

Marlinspike —A pointed iron tool, used to open the 
strands of rope or wire rope for splicing. 

Some of the fittings and equipment found on 
sailboats should be of interest. A few are mention¬ 
ed here. Chapter 10, which has as its subject mat¬ 
ter “Sailboats”, goes into much more detail. 

Mast —A spar set upright from the deck to support rig¬ 
ging and sails. 

Shrouds —Lines on each side of a vessel, reaching from 
the masthead to the vessel’s sides, to support the mast. 

Stays —Large lines used to support masts, leading from 
the head of one mast to another, or to the deck. 
Those which lead forward are called forestays. Those 
which lead aft are called backstays. 

Halyards —Lines used for hoisting and lowering sails. 

Boom —A spar used to extend the foot of a fore-and-aft 
sail. 

Bowsprit —A large, strong spar extending from the bow 
of a vessel. 

. Jib —A triangular sail set on a stay, forward. 

Main Sail —The principal sail. 

Fore Sail —A sail carried forward of the main sail. 

Mizzen Sail —Usually the aftermost sail if this is not the 
main sail. 


NAUTICAL TERMINOLOGY 



2-2 Parts of a Boat 

The dimensions of a vessel are: 

Beam —The breadth of a boat at its widest point. 

Draft —The vertical distance from the waterline to the 
lowest part of the vessel beneath the water. 

Freeboard —The minimum vertical distance from the 
waterline to the gunwale. 

Length —The distance from the bow to the stern, meas¬ 
ured along the vessel’s center line, exclusive of bow¬ 
sprits and other projections. 

Sheer —Tlic longitudinal upward or downward curv'e of 
the deck fore-and-aft. 

The following terms describe directions or loca¬ 
tions of items aboard the vessel or closely alongside: 

Abaft —Toward. the stern. 

Aft —Near the stern. 

Aloft —Above the deck. 


HATCH 
TUMBLE HOME BINDING 


HATCH 


BINNACLE 


CLEAT 

COAMING 



DECK 

TpERAIL 

BOW 

BITT .CHOCK 
STEM 


INDLASS 
ANCHOR 

MOTOR FUEL FILLER ^ ANCHOR CHOCK 

HATCH PLATE STARBOARD SIDE LITE 


2-1 Topside Nomenclature 


I8 













Amidships —the center of the boat—with reference to 
her length or to her breadth. 

Ahead —In the direction of the bow. 

Astern —In the direction of the stern. 

Athwartships —Across the line of the vessel's keel. 

Below —Beneath or under the deck. 

Fore-and-aft —Lengthwise with the vessel’s keel. The 
opposite to athwartships. 

Close Aboard —Alongside, close to the hull. 

Inboard —Toward the centerline of a vessel. 

Outboard —Away from the centerline of a vessel. 

Windward —Toward the wind. 

Leeward —The direction opposite that from which the 
wind blows; downwind. 

The following terms describe relative directions 
as viewed from a vessel toward an object which is 
not aboard the vessel: 

Ahead (Dead Ahead)—In the direction of the vessel’s 
fore-and-aft center line, forward of the bow. 

Abeam —In a direction at right angles to the vessel’s keel, 
on either side. 

Broad on the Bow —In a direction half-way from ahead 
to abeam of the vessel, on either side. 

Astern (Dead Astern)—In the direction of the vessel’s 
fore-and-aft center line, behind the stern. 

Broad on the Quarter —In a direction half-way from 
abeam to astern of the vessel, on either side. 


Types of Motorboats 

If you are shopping for your first boat, you will 
find that there are an infinite number of models 
and sizes on the market. Each has been developed 
over the years to meet a specific need. Some are 
adapted to suit specific boating activites and are 
not suitable for others. So when you select a 
boat, be sure that it will suit your purposes. 

Skiffs are truly the utility boats for the boatman. 
They are popular because of their simplicity and 
durability. Skiffs are flat-bottomed with either 
straight or slightly flared sides. A skiff is easy to 
row and may be fitted with a small outboard en¬ 
gine. Because it is flat-bottomed, a skiff is ideal for 
a hunter or fisherman to operate on protected 
shallow water. 

Prams are similar to skiffs except that they are 
smaller and the bows are squared-off instead of 
being pointed. They are constructed with either 
round or shallow “vee” bottoms. Although quite 
small, a pram is more stable and easier to tow 
than a skiff. It is designed primarily for rowing 
but will perform reasonably well with a small out¬ 
board engine. 

Dinghies are small boats with rounded bows, 
round bottoms and wide beams for their short 
length. Like prams, dinghies are intended for row¬ 
ing but may be fitted with small outboard engines. 
Dinghies are used principally as tenders carried 
aboard larger craft. Because of their rounded bot- 


STERN 
STAFF. 

TRANSOM^ 

KNEE. 
RUDDERS 
POST 
RUDDER- 
PROPELLER 

STUFFING 

BOX 


STEERING 
SHEER 


WHEEL WINDSHIELD BOW STAFF 


1 I ~ BULKHEAD 


PROPELLER 
SHAFT 


SKEG 


ENGINE 
NGINE BED 


BILGES 


BOW LIGHT 
TEM 

t LINE 


2-3 Sectional Nomenclature. 


19 













toms, dinghies are remarkably unstable. One should 
be careful when entering a dinghy to step in the 
center of the bottom and not on a gunwale. 

Utility outboards are favored by boatmen who 
rely on outboard engines for power. They are spe¬ 
cifically designed for outboard propulsion and con¬ 
sequently are difficult to row. Most utilities are 
completely open, though some have decked-over 
bows. They may be powered by engines up to 45 
hp, depending on their size and design. 



2-4 Utility Outboard 


Runabouts are more sporty craft than utility 
outboards. Most runabouts have decked-over bows 
and are intended for general use such as cruising, 
water skiing and fishing. Most are powered by out¬ 
board engines although some runabouts have in¬ 
board engines. 



2-5 Outboard Runabout 


Cruisers are built in a wide variety of shapes and 
sizes depending on their intended use. Those de¬ 
signed for extended cruising have large cabins and 
small cockpit spaces, while those used primarily 
for short trips have smaller accommodation areas 
and larger open cockpits. Small cruisers are designed 
for occasional overnight use; large cruisers are used 
by some as houseboats. The cruiser “type” is de¬ 
scribed by the configuration of the hull and super¬ 
structure-raised deck, flush deck, trunk cabin, 
sedan or flying bridge. Power can be inboard or out¬ 
board, depending on the size of the boat. 



2-6 Cabin Cruiser 

A houseboat is a popular modification of the 
cruiser, and has mushroomed in the populanty 
polls. Traditionally, the houseboat was boxy, com¬ 
fortable and slow. For a person who wished to get 
away from it all to enjoy his leisure time on a 
quiet backwater, the houseboat provided the an¬ 
swer. Until the early sixties the houseboat lacked 
dash and appeal. Today’s modern houseboat offers 
all the conveniences of home. Some have sufficient 
power and speed to tow water skiers. Design and 
appearance-wise, modern houseboats leave nothing 
to be desired. With the advent of fiberglass and 
modern hull adaptations based on the catamaran 
(twin hull) design, some of the larger houseboats 
are capable of taking heavy seas as safely as any 
offshore cruiser. 

Hull Design 

There are two basic types of boat hulls — dis¬ 
placement and planing. The displacement hull 


20 










displaces a volume of water equal to the weight 
of the boat regardless of the boat’s speed through 
the water. A displacement boat is limited by its 
design in its top speed. In a displacement hull, 
there is a direct relationship between the shape of 
the hull, the length of the boat’s waterline and hull 
speed. A displacement hull vessel should not be 
forced to attain a speed greater than that for which 
it was designed. Adding more horsepower to in¬ 
crease speed usually results in reducing the han¬ 
dling characteristics of the boat. Displacement hulls 
are found on most larger sailboats and ocean-going 
powerboats, as well as rowboats, canoes, dinghies 
and prams. 

At slow speeds the planing-type hull displaces 
water in the same manner as a displacement hull. 
As speed is increased, the hull design imparts a 
lifting effect. When sufficient speed is attained, the 
hull comes up “onto the plane.” This planing 
effect decreases the displacement and makes prac¬ 
tically unlimited speeds possible, dependent on 
horsepower only. To help a planing boat achieve 
a greater speed, light, strong materials are used in 
its construction. 

While there are no hard and fast rules, displace¬ 
ment boats are constructed usually with round 
bottoms or deep vees, while planing boats are built 
mostly with shallow vees, flat or channel bottoms. 
But it should be pointed out that marine archi¬ 
tects will adapt all types of construction to obtain 
the desired results in any particular boat design. 



2-7 Boat Construction 


Construction of boats 

The types of materials used in the construction 
of boats have changed considerably in the past few 
years. Until quite recently, most pleasure craft were 
constructed of wood only. Now, many boats are 
built of fiberglass, plastics, aluminum, steel and 
ferro-cement. Even wood construction has changed 
in some instances. Wooden vessels used to be 
planked; now they are made also of plywood and 
laminated wood strips. 

Wooden Construction 

In wooden construction the most popular ma¬ 
terials used for keels and frames are Douglas fir, 
white oak and southern pine. Cypress, cedar, ma¬ 
hogany and redwood are most often used for 
planking. Sitka spruce, hemlock, white pine and 
yellow poplar may be msed where lightness and 
strength are desired, but where decay resistance is 
relatively unimportant. Fastenings used on wood 
hulls should be of non-corrosive material. When¬ 
ever wood is used for construction, it should be 
treated thoroughly with a decay resistant com¬ 
pound. Closed compartments should be kept clean, 
dry and well ventilated to prevent dry-rot. Periodic 
bottom painting is required to resist the action of 
marine borers. Some larger boats are built with 
wooden sheathing separated from the planking by 
a layer of felt, impregnated with a compound to 
discourage marine borers. 

The use of marine-grade plywood has become 
popular for moderate sized hulls of hard-chine 
construction. Also, one-piece moulded plywood or 
laminated eonstruction is often found in smaller 
hulls. 

There are several types of wood plank-hull con¬ 
struction. The planks, or strakes, of a carvel-built 
hull lie alongside each other without overlapping. 
Each strake is fastened directly to the frames. 
Frames may be either bent or sawed. The strakes 
are fitted so that they touch each other along the 
inner edge. The edges of each strake are beveled 
toward the outside surface. This forms a V-shaped 
groove into which caulking and seam compound 
is inserted. 

In lap-strake construction, the planks overlap at 
the edges like clapboarding on a house. Rivets are 


21 




2-8 Basic Wood Plank Construction 


generally used for fastenings. These rivets pass 
through the upper overlapping strake, the lower 
overlapped strake and then the frame. In this type 
of construction the frames are usually of the bent 
type. Seams are left unfilled, or various compounds 
are used between the strakes. The lap-strake hull 
makes a very light, strong boat. The exposed edges 
of each strake resist the tendency for the boat to 
roll just as bilge keels do on larger craft. 

Diagonal-built hulls have two layers of planking. 
The first is laid tending forward at a 45 degree 
angle to the keel. The second layer is laid tending 
aft at right angles to the first. This type of con¬ 
struction requires little framing and still makes a 
very strong hull. 

Fiberglass Construction 

Fiberglass has become an important building ma¬ 
terial for boats of all sizes. It is strong, impact and 
chafe resistant, weathers well, and is watertight. 
Fiberglass, in finished form, is a type of reinforced 
plastic. The plastic materials used are polyester and 
epoxy resins. Most commonly, layers of glass cloth 
and woven roving are bonded together by resin in 
a mold over a form. Nearly all fiberglass boats have 
the desired color mixed in with the gel-coat. How¬ 
ever, the color could fade as time passes, and it 
might become necessary to paint the boat. Fiber¬ 
glass hulls do not provide protection from marine 
growth and, therefore, must be given a coat of anti¬ 
fouling bottom paint to keep the bottom clean. 

One advantage of fiberglass construction is that 


it does not require great amounts of longitudinal 
and transverse structural members. To be sure, the 
hull must be given some strengthening, but the one- 
piece skin of the hull eliminates most of the need 
for frames and stringers. A fiberglass hull that has 
been built carefully is an extremely tough, resil¬ 
ient and watertight structure. It will survive a great 
deal of punishment but should not be abused. 
Minor repairs are made easily, though large holes 
present difficulty for one who is not experienced 
with the material. 


Aluminum Construction 

Aluminum is becoming widely used for hulls and 
also for superstructures. It is light, strong, fash¬ 
ioned with greater ease than steel, and (when ano¬ 
dized) is highly corrosion resistant. Aluminum hulls 
are built in one of two ways. Sheets are bent to the 
desired shape or they are pressed into shape by 
hydraulic presses. The resulting plates are welded 
together or, if riveted, the seams are filled with 
synthetic caulking compound. “5000” series marine 
aluminum alloy is extremely corrosion resistant, 
even in salt water. However, salt water will attack 
the surface of other aluminums, so it helps to give 
the hull a coat of paint. Aluminum causes the 
greatest amount of trouble when it comes in con¬ 
tact with other metals under water. When used 
adjoining a dissimilar metal, care must be taken 
to insulate it in order to prevent galvanic action 
or electrolysis. 

The underwater body of a boat and its fittings 
are usually protected against galvanic action by 
placing magnesium or zinc blocks in the vicinity of 
the screws and rudder. These blocks are called 
“zincs” by most boatowners and are attached fre¬ 
quently to the rudder and shaft strut. Often they 
take the form of collars which are attached to the 
rudder posts or propeller shafts. Boats should be 
outfitted with polarity indication systems if they are 
apt to be troubled by galvanic action. TTirough-hull 
fittings should be grounded properly. These precau¬ 
tions are particularlv important if shore-side elec¬ 
trical power is used when the boat is moored 
alongside a wharf or in a slip. Outboard engines 
use dissimilar metals such as bronze, brass and alu¬ 
minum. So it’s a good idea to attach “zincs” or 
raise the engine out of salt water when it is not in 


22 











use. These precautions may retard corrosion for 
several years. 

Ferro-cement Construction 

The development of cement as a boat building 
material is not new. In the days of World War I, 
cement was used to build ships. The use of 
ferro-cement in the construction of boats 40 ft. or 
more really saw the light of day in Australia. The 
technique spread to Britain in the forties, then to 
Canada, and recently to the United States. The 
ferro-cement boat is basically a frame of steel mesh 
plastered with cement and sand. In terms of 
strength and durability, the ferro-cement boats 
must be placed at or near the head of the list. It 
has been shown that ferro-cement boats will stand 
the most outrageous mishandling. They can be 
repaired easily and economically even when they 
have sustained collision damage that would have 
sunk a conventional boat. 

One of the most interesting facts about ferro- 
cement hulls is that they can be made to weigh 
less than comparable wooden counterparts. In terms 
of cost, the ferro-cement hull is considerably less 
expensive than a comparable hull of conventional 


materials. It is possible that the advent of ferro- 
cement in boat-building will mean that the boat 
owner of the future will receive much more for his 
money. Fortunately, the ferro-cement boat will 
equal or exceed the best conventional boats in 
terms of appearance. 

The one limitation of ferro-cement is that it prob¬ 
ably will not be used in boats of less than 40 ft. 
in length. It is not practical as a replacement for 
fiberglass in the smaller boats being mass produced 
today. On smaller craft it is still comparatively 
heavy. This is the one exception to the statement 
that ferro-cement boats are lighter than boats of 
conventional materials. 

Propulsion 

There are various types of marine engines on the 
market today. Most engine systems are designed 
for a particular type of craft. Matching the wrong 
engine to a boat might be disastrous. When you 
buy an engine, the recommendations of the manu¬ 
facturer concerning propulsion requirements should 
be followed. Keep in mind that if the horsepower 
of the engine is doubled, it does not necessarily 
follow that the speed of the boat will be doubled. 
The increased weight of the larger engine, plus the 



RUNABOUT 


RAISED DECK CRUSIER 



2-9 Types of Boats 





23 


















weight of the extra fuel and accessories that will be 
required to accommodate the larger engine, may 
cancel out much of the anticipated extra speed. 
Also, it may destroy the trim of the boat. 

Inboard marine engines manufactured today are 
either gasoline or diesel piston types. Most operate 
on the 4-stroke cycle. A diesel engine usually weighs 
more than a comparable gasoline engine, but its 
economy of operation and comparative safety are 
appealing to many boatmen. An inboard engine is 
mounted within the hull on an engine bed, and 
transmits power to the propeller by way of a shaft 
extending through the hull. Horsepower ratings for 
these engines begin at approximately 15 hp. 

The outboard engine is basically a portable gaso¬ 
line fueled engine with its own integral drive shaft 
and propeller. The outboard engine is attached to 
the boat’s transom, and turns on a pivot to change 
the direction of the boat. An outboard engine oper¬ 
ates on either the two or four stroke cycle, and 
horsepower ratings vary from a fraction of one 
horsepower to well over a hundred “horses.” Out¬ 
board engines find favor among many boatmen be¬ 
cause of the engines’ portability, compactness and 
relative ease of repair. The horsepower capacity 
plate should indicate the recommended engine 
horsepower for the boat. If vour boat does not have 
one of these plates, you would be well advised to 
consult the dealer and be guided by his recommen¬ 
dations. 

The inboard-outboard installation combines the 
best features of both inboard and outboard engines. 
The engine is mounted inside the hull and connects 
through the transom to the propeller assembly. 
This assembly has all the characteristics of the 
lower portion of an outboard engine shaft. 

The tunnel drive has recently reappeared on the 
boating scene in small boats, although the idea of 
enclosing the propeller in a tunnel has been devel¬ 
oped for many years. The boat hull has a tunnel 
formed in the bottom toward the stern. The engine 
is set low in the hull and practically horizontal in 
a position forward of the tunnel, with the shaft 
projecting through the hull and out into the tun¬ 
nel. The advantages of such an installation are 
worthy of mention. The propeller is protected bv 
the tunnel so that it is possible to beach the boat 
as easily as an outboard or in-out propelled boat. 


The tunnel arrangement permits the boat to be 
operated safely in very shallow water. It has a con¬ 
ventional installation — engine, transmission, shaft 
and propeller. The cost of such a conventional in¬ 
stallation is considerably less than that of a normal 
in-out installation. 

The jet drive is another system of propulsion. It 
is an inboard engine coupled to a high-speed water 
pump. The water being pumped out at the stern 
propels the boat. The direction of travel is con¬ 
trolled by the direction of the jet, hence the need 
for a rudder is eliminated. The chief advantage of 
the jet drive is its ability to operate in shallow 
water. The bottom of the hull has nothing pro¬ 
truding from it. But it does have one disadvantage. 
All types of material can be sucked into the jet 
pump. Most can be discharged safely but certain 
materials can cause a total blockage, and the pump 
will have to be taken apart to be cleared. Clearing 
a jet drive water pump is not as simple as cutting 
a piece of rope from a fouled propeller. It will most 
likely require the services of a professional. 

The Boat Trailer 

Picking the Right Trailer for Your Boat 

The first boat trailers used by our boating fore¬ 
fathers were heavy, cumbersome and crude. Often 
they were cast-off farm wagons or adaptations of 
automobile axles and wheels, with bolted steel or 
wooden beds. Boats were lifted by brute force and 
placed on the trailers. 

Getting the boats off the trailers and into the 
water was also a problem. In the early days, boat 
launching ramps were few and far between. With 
the gradual development of boats and boating areas, 
more launching ramps were constructed. The boat¬ 
ing industry was quick to realize the potential of 
small boating and began producing boat trailers. 
The earliest boat trailers were custom made to the 
owners’ specifications. This was costly and produc¬ 
tion was on a small scale. Soon several firms began 
producing trailers for small boats on a production 
line basis. 

Through “trial and error” it was discovered that 
boat trailers needed to be light and well balanced 
so they would “track” properly behind the towing 
vehicle. They needed to be constructed substan- 


24 


tially, in order to withstand the strain of high speed 
travel. They needed adequate support for the hull, 
as well as tiedowns, safety chains, tail lights and 
turn signals. Watertight seals for wheel bearings, 
winches, and manual or electric brakes were later 
developments. 

Special tires and “A” frame trailers were devel¬ 
oped to make launchings easier. Some boat trailer 
manufacturers began using aluminum in place of 
steel. This made trailers considerably lighter, and 
some boatmen believe they are easier to maintain. 

Normally, the length of the boat determines the 
length of the trailer. The beam (width) deter¬ 
mines the width of the trailer. The boat should fit 
snugly on the trailer when it is cranked up to the 
winch support. There should be proper support for 
the boat’s bottom. Most trailers have adjustable 
rubber rollers with nylon bushings or wooden chocks 
which are cushioned. These help absorb road 
shocks and prevent transmission of the shocks to 
the boat’s hull. These supports must be aligned 
properly to prevent warping the hull. 

The first time the boat is placed on the trailer. 


the rollers and supports should be adjusted to con¬ 
form to the boat’s bottom, and the bolts tightened 
securely. After the initial adjustments are made, 
they will probably not need further attention ex¬ 
cept to check the bolts from time to time to be 
certain that they haven’t worked loose. 

On smaller boats with lightly-constructed tran¬ 
soms, the outboard engines should be removed 
while the boats are out of the water. The weight 
of the engine places a comparatively heavy strain 
on the transom, and this could cause a deflection 
or “warp” in the hull. Larger boats, designed for 
heavier engines, have more substantial transoms. 
The engines are more-or-less permanently installed 
and will not accommodate easy removal each time 
the boat is hauled out of the water. Many boat 
manufacturers recommend that outboard engines 
be removed from boats during winter storage. 

Proper tie-downs should also be considered in 
choosing a trailer. Sufficient support for each side 
of the hull is essential to prevent the boat from 
shifting while it is on the trailer. Outboard engines 
increase in weight as they increase in horsepower 


CORRECTLY 

LOADED 

TRAILER 


□ SAFE LOADING 
CAPACITY 


□ REAR VIEW 
MIRRORS 




:/■ 




LIGHTING 

EQUIPMENT 






□\ 

3 


Ilk n 

□ SAFETY CHAINS 


DISTRIBUTED 

EVENLY 


2-10 Correctly Loaded Trailer 


25 














and size, and the supports beneath the boat’s 
transom must be proportionate. 

The trailer must be strong enough to carry the 
weight that will be placed on it. The load capacity 
of a boat trailer should not be exceeded. Most trail¬ 
ers will have a data plate that states the maximum 
load capacity and the correct specifications for the 
tires. If your trailer does not have such a plate, 
consult other sources or your dealer for this infor¬ 
mation. Remember, the “load” placed on a trailer 
includes the weight of the boat, the engine and all 
gear that is loaded into the boat. 

While trailering, many boatmen haul most of 
their gear in their boats. If this is done, the load 
should be distributed so that the heaviest items are 
placed on the bottom of the boat, directly over a 
supporting roller or chock. The gear should be se¬ 
cured carefully to keep it from shifting around. 

Trailer hitches began as home-made contriv¬ 
ances. Tbey are now carefully engineered. Most are 
constructed of heavy gauge steel, rust proofed and 
equipped-with safety chains. The trailer tongue is 
equipped with a locking mechanism which clamps 



2-11 Correct Trailer Hookup To 
Rear of Car or Truck 


down on the neck of the ball of the hitch. This 
prevents the trailer from coming loose. Some 
hitches have a provision for inserting a cotter pin 
or a lock to prevent accidental disconnection. 

The hitch and ball should conform to current 
Society of Automotive Engineers’ Standards for 
passenger car trailer couplings. Under these recom¬ 
mendations, trailers are classified by gross weight. 


Rather than go into the details of these recommen¬ 
dations, suffice it to say that unless your trailer’s 
gross weight (including the boat) exceeds 5,000 
pounds, a 2" diameter ball will satisfy the require¬ 
ments. A distance of 28 inches between the towing 
vehicle and the trailer is usually provided by most 
hitch installations. 

Boat trailers must be licensed just as automobiles. 
Most states have regulations pertaining to trailer 
ownership and operation. Periodic vehicle inspec¬ 
tions made by law enforcement agencies also in¬ 
clude boat trailers. Particular emphasis is placed on 
lights and reflectors, towing hitches, brakes, safety 
chains, size limitations and weight. Many states 
have adopted brake regulations recommended in 
the Uniform Vehicle Code that all trailers weigh¬ 
ing more than 40% of the towing vehicle must be 
equipped with an integral brake system as well as 
the other required safety equipment. 

In most states a boat trailer is considered a sepa¬ 
rate vehicle. It’s a good idea to ask your insurance 
agent if your boat insurance covers your trailer. If 
not, a provision to this effect should be written into 
your car or boat policy. 

Trailering Safety Precautions 

Before leaving home: 

1. Be eertain that the boat is secured properly 
on the trailer. 

2. Inspect all lines, tie-downs, and the winch. 
Tighten as necessar\^ and replaee any that 
show signs of fraying or strand separation. 

3. Determine that all trailer lights are operating 
satisfactorily. 

4. Test the trailer brakes. 

5. Inspect the hitch and safety chain. 

6. Check the pressure in the tires. 

On the road: 

1. Drive earefullv, allowing for the extra length 
of the car and trailer when negotiating turns. 

2. Allow more time for stopping. 

3. Watch speed limits. Many states have lower 
maximum speed limits for ears towing trailers. 

4. Pull well off the road periodically and walk 
completely around the rig. Look things over 
carefully. Glanee at the tires and examine 


26 


the wheel bearings for overheating. Test the 
tie-downs and check any gear which is being 
carried in the boat. 

These simple precautions, if observed, will make 
trailering your boat a pleasant and relaxing experi¬ 
ence. Trailering the boat to the water can be part 
of the pleasure of boating. There is no reason why 
it should not be. 

Conclusion 

This chapter has served as an introduction to 
boating terminology — the colorful language of the 
mariner. The use of correct nautical terminology 
is important when conversing with other boatmen 
and those aboard your boat. It could save many dol¬ 
lars in your dealings with boat repair yards. 

There are many ripes of boats, large and small. 
They may be powered by any one of several meth¬ 
ods of propulsion. They have different hull charac¬ 
teristics and may be constructed of a wide variety 


of materials. Some boats are left in the water for 
long periods of time while others are hauled out 
and trailered home immediately after use. Some 
pleasure boatmen cruise on rivers. Others sail on 
large lakes, while still others navigate the open 
waters of the high seas. 

With such a variety of boats and boating prefer¬ 
ences, one might ask if there is anything that all 
boatmen have in common. Where is the thread 
that binds them together? It’s elusive, but it’s there! 
Neophyte pleasure boatmen who do not develop a 
love for boating soon sell their boats and disappear 
from the scene. Those who survive this initial 
screening are all cut from the same cloth, regardless 
of how and where they do their boating. For in¬ 
stance, would you refuse to assist a fellow boatman 
whom you encountered in trouble afloat, even if he 
were a complete stranger? In fact, have you ever 
really met a complete stranger on the water? 

We think not. Further, we’re willing to bet that 
you never will! 


27 


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CHAPTER 3 


Boat Handling 


introduction 

Handling a boat is an interesting and sometimes 
exciting experience. Often, a first-time boat owner 
may find it is so exciting as to be frightening. His 
boat may respond in ways that he does not expect. 
He may well feel that he does not have control over 
the situation. 

Handling a boat, like driving an automobile or 
flying a plane, is a skill which is acquired as the 
result of study and practice. Basic boat handling 
skills require, as a first step, a knowledge of how 
and why boats behave as they do. This can be ob- 
■tained by trial and error—but errors on the water 
can be dangerous to the boatman and to others 
nearby. A certain amount of basic knowledge can be 
learned in the classroom at much less risk and in a 
more efficient manner. 

Once the basic principles are learned, they should 
be applied on the water. The boatman should learn 
about his boat. This understanding must include 
everything about the vessel; its hull, with its charac¬ 
teristics and limitations, its machinery and rigging, 
its underwater gear and all equipment aboard. Once 
this understanding is achieved, it is reinforced by 
constant practice. How does the vessel behave in 
turns? How much way is required for effective rud¬ 
der control? How does she behave in varying sea con¬ 
ditions? If left to her own resources, will she wallow 
in the trough or turn her stern into the wind? How 
responsive is she in close quarters? How well does 
she carry her way? What are her backing character¬ 
istics? In a seaway, is the hull tender or stiff? How 
much power is available for emergencies? What is 
her fuel consumption? How much fuel does she 
carry? What are the effects of a beam wind, and 
what allowances must be made in these circumstan¬ 
ces? These questions, and many more, must be 


answered by the boatman; and their answers must 
be thoroughly understood. He must practice to im¬ 
prove his skills and develop a solid feeling of confi¬ 
dence in himself and his equipment. This cannot 
be done ashore but a good knowledge of what is 
actually happening when he turns the wheel or 
opens the throttle can make the learning process 
quicker and easier. 

The propeller and the rudder are the two princi¬ 
pal devices which control the boat. They both act in 
complex ways—but by looking at a simplified pic¬ 
ture of their actions we can understand more about 
their practical effects on the handling characteristics 
of the boat. 

The Propeller 

Almost all pleasure boats are propeller driven. 
Propellers are designed to rotate in either a clock¬ 
wise or counter-clockwise direction. When the pro¬ 
peller is viewed from aft (looking forward) and it 
is seen to turn in a clockwise direction to propel the 
vessel forward, it is called a right-handed propeller. 



3-1 Left Hand Propeller Right Hand Propeller 


29 



If it is seen to turn in a counter-clockwise direction 
it is called a left-handed propeller. 

Propellers may be easily identified as right-handed 
or left-handed by inspection. Also, most propellers 
are stamped “RH” or “LH” on the hub. Other 
markings which may appear on the hub are the 
diameter and pitch. The diameter is generally 
measured in inches and represents the diameter of 
the circle described by the outer tips of the rotating 
blades. Pitch is also measured in inches, and re¬ 
presents the theoretical distance that the hub would 
travel forward with one complete rotation of the 
propeller. Pitch is easiest to visualize if one thinks 
of the propeller as moving through a solid mass. 
The pitch would be the distance in inches that the 
screw would penetrate the mass in one complete 
revolution. One point to keep in mind concerning 
the pitch dimension is that this is a theoretical 
value only, since the propeller is working in a 
liquid and not a solid. 

Surprisingly, not too many people know how a 
propeller works. Because a propeller is made up of 
twisted surfaces resembling a screw (technically a 
helicoid) it is often called a screw. But it doesn't 
simply work its way through the water like a screw 
in wood. If this were so the best blade shape would 
be sharp at the leading edge to “bite” the water 
easier. If you look closely at a propeller blade you 
will see that, in section, it is shaped about like an 
airplane wing. 

It is in reality a lifting surface, just like an air¬ 
plane's wing. As it rotates, water passes over the 
blade's section. There are a lot of high-powered 
mathematical formulas about the effects of this— 
but basically the water going over the “fat” side 
which faces forward relative to the boat has farther 
to travel than that which goes by the “thin” side 
which faces aft. This results in a reduction in pres¬ 
sure on the fat side and the propeller tends to move 
in that direction. 

A marine propeller is not a pump! It is not a re¬ 
action machine pulling in water from ahead and 
pushing it astern. Because it does not operate in 
ideal conditions some of this does happen, and it 
can be of use to the boatman—maneuvering at low 
speeds. But, to understand a propeller's operation 


one must consider it as being like a spiral shaped 
air foil. 

Boat propellers, unlike airplane propellers or 
wings, operate in water. This means that because of 
the high density of water we can use a smaller pro¬ 
peller for a boat than for an airplane of the same 
horsepower. But we are faced with a serious practical 
limitation called cavitation. On the extreme, cavi¬ 
tation can reduce propeller efficiency and can seri¬ 
ously damage the propeller and even the struts and 
rudders aft of it. How and why does this happen? 
If we ask the propeller to absorb too much power— 
to develop more lift than that for which it is de¬ 
signed, we get cavitation. As we increase RPM's— 
move the “air foil section” through the water faster 
—the pressure over the “fat” side gets less and less 
until a point is reached where the water passing over 
the blade literally boils—yes, it turns into steam! 
This sounds pretty far out, but a dish of water in a 
vacuum chamber in a laboratory can be made to boil 
not by increasing the temperature but by reducing 
the pressure acting on it. A highly loaded propeller 
does the same thing, not in a lab, but on your boat! 
The “cavity” limits the amount of thrust we can get 
from our propeller, but a cavitating wheel still pro¬ 
duces a lot of thrust. The trouble comes because 
there is a peak of low pressure about Vs of the way 
aft of the blade's leading edge. After that, the pres¬ 
sure is greater and the steam bubbles condense vio¬ 
lently. This “implosion” hammers on the blade and 
can erode it away over a period of time. Some of the 
“implosions” may even take place on the struts and 
rudder aft of the propeller and erode these as well. 

In a supercavitating propeller, the pitch, diameter 
and blade shape are designed so that high horse¬ 
power can be used efficiently under high cavitation. 
But the trailing edge of the blades are “chopped” 
away so that the “implosions” have nothing on 
which to hammer. The detail design of a supercavi¬ 
tating propeller and a regular non-cavitating propel¬ 
ler is very different. Loading an ordinary propeller to 
the cavitating point makes it operate in conditions 
for which it is not suited and reduces its efficiency 
sometimes quite suddenly and may lead to engine 
overspeed and other problems. 

Almost all single-screw boats have right-handed 
propellers. There is no advantage in efficiency from 
a right-handed propeller but most boatmen are used 


30 


to it and its low speed maneuvering characteristics. 
A left-handed propeller can cause practical operator 
problems for one who is used to a right-handed pro¬ 
peller and often requires re-training of the boatman. 
Twin-screw boats usually have “outboard turning” 
propellers. This is important in low speed handling 
characteristics because of the complex interaction 
of propeller and hull. The explanation of the reasons 
would be lengthy and technically “deep” but it is a 
proven fact that inboard turning propellers make a 
boat extremely difficult to handle at low speeds. 
Twin-screw boats are far more maneuverable at slow 
speeds than single screw craft. Beside being able to 
apply varying amounts of power to each propeller 
separately, the propellers of twin screw boats are 
placed on either side of the centerline, giving them 
greater turning leverage. 

The Rudder 

An inboard powered vessel is steered by means of 
a vertical blade called the rudder which can be piv¬ 
oted to either side of the centerline. The size and 
shape of the rudder have a considerable effect on its 
operating characteristics. Boats which are designed 
for relatively slow speeds usually have large rudders, 
while higher speed boats have smaller ones. The rud¬ 
der is generally placed directly behind the propeller, 
or nearly so. Modern twin screw pleasure craft al¬ 
most always have twin rudders, each of which is 
placed behind its respective propeller. 

The pivotal shaft to which the rudder is attached 
is called the stock. On most rudders, the stock is at¬ 
tached to the forward edge of the blade. Certain rud¬ 




ders are designed with a portion of the blade pro¬ 
jecting ahead of the stock. These are called balanced 
rudders. When a balanced rudder is pivoted off the 
center line, the portion of the blade which is ahead 
of the stock is placed on the opposite side of the cen¬ 
terline. Although this may be only 1 5 to 20% of the 
surface area of the blade, it has the effect of taking 
a considerable amount of strain off the steering gear 
and thus makes the boat easier to handle. 

The rudder is another lifting surface. It can be 
either a symetrical airfoil or a flat plate. As we turn 
the rudder from its amidships position while the 
vessel is making headway, it creates a lift, just like 
an airplane wing, and the resultant force tends to 
move the stern of the boat sideways. 

Even good symetrical airfoil rudders lose their effi¬ 
ciency when turned too far off the centerline, and 
much of the turning force is lost. It is for this rea¬ 
son that most rudders are limited mechanically to a 
“hard over” angle of about 35° from amidships. 

Practical Effects of Propellers and Rudders 

The first thing to remember when operating a 
powerboat, or any boat for that matter, is the fact 
that when the rudder is moved off eenterline, it is 
the stern and not the bow that changes direction 
first. This becomes especially important when get¬ 
ting underway (under headway) from a float or pier. 
Under this circumstance, putting the rudder away 


31 












from the side nearer the float will only drive the 
stern of the boat into the float. 



3-4 Leaving the Dock 


Maneuvering at Speed 

Maneuvering at speed is usually a “rudder only” 
operation. When we put the rudder over, the lift 
force tends to force the stern sideways. The boat piv¬ 
ots at a point which is usually forward of amidships 
and the bow is initially slightly inside the turn track 
line with the stern outboard. 

Boats at speed usually settle into a turn nicely be¬ 
cause of the forces of the water on the moving hull. 


As long as the lifting force of the rudder is applied 
the boat will continue to turn. Returning the helm 
to amidships will slow the turn and the boat will 
tend to straighten out. But in a very heavy boat, a 
bit of opposite rudder (meeting her) may be help¬ 
ful in settling on the new course. 

Low Speed Maneuvering 

Single Screw 

If our boat is dead in the water, there is no flow 
over the rudder. The rudder can be moved from 
hard over to hard over without effect. As we put 
the engine ahead, the propeller's lift tries to move 
the boat ahead—but the boat has inertia—it resists 
a change in motion, and the propeller acts prac¬ 
tically in a different manner than it does at speed. 

Without going too deeply into the analysis of pro¬ 
peller action, we should be aware of the fact that a 
rotating propeller develops a component of torque 
in addition to the component of thrust. The thrust 
component propels the boat while the torque com¬ 
ponent generates a transverse force through the 
shafting which may tend to force the stern to port 
or starboard. When a boat is dead in the water, and 
the engine is placed ahead, both thrust and torque 



32 



























are initially large. Most of the initial thrust is over¬ 
come by the vessel’s fore-and-aft inertia, but the 
torque is relatively free to react and the stern may 
be forced to the side. 

The initial practical effect of the right-hand turn¬ 
ing propeller of a single-screw boat is to force the 
stern to starboard. There are exceptions but this is 
the general rule. The propeller wash also forces 
water over the rudder. More than one boatman 
who didn’t realize that his rudder was hard over 
when he hit the throttle has had a big surprise. 
The sideways propeller forces grow less important 
as speed builds up and a boat with any significant 
forward motion handles quite normally. 

Backing the engine of a “right-handed” boat tends 
to swing the stern to port. This is caused by an inter¬ 
action of the propeller and the hull which decreases 
the effectiveness of the portion of the propeller 
which is “on top,” nearest the hull. It is a complex 
phenomena which depends to some extent on hull 
design as well as propeller tip clearance from the 
hull and other factors. There are boats which will 
back dead straight, some which back to starboard 
(although this is most unusual for a “right-handed” 
boat) and a few which will do the unexpected. 
There are many factors involved, so each boatman 
should learn his own boat’s behavior patterns. It is 
the wise boatman who realizes that most “right- 
handed” boats back to port, but who doesnt always 
count on it I 

Wlien backing down it is good practice to have 
the rudder amidship initially. This is especially true 
if there is a direct “tiller line” steering system as is 


RIGHT HAND RRORfiUR 


1 


SIDEWISE ^ 

PRESSURE 4 I . 

RUDDER ' 4l 


/ 


^ I 

Stern swings to port 


^ MUmm rntmtui _— 

3-6 Single Screw Vessel with Headway, 
Propeller Backing 


sometimes found on older boats. The resultant 
“kick”.on the wheel from a hard backdown of one 
of these boats with the rudder part way over can 
damage the steering system and has been known to 
break a boatman’s wrist. In any case the strain on 
the steering system can be considerable. 

Rudder Action While Going Astern 

As sternway builds up the rudder begins to have 
a marked effect on maneuvering and the boat backs 
just like a car. There are many rules on the “reverse” 
effect of the rudder but this is the simplest: When 
backing down, right rudder will swing the stern to 
the right. The bow, of course, will go to the left. If 
the stern motion is stopped and the boat is put 
ahead, the rudder must be shifted to keep the bow 
swinging in the same direction. 


j IHIMT hand PROPILLfR 



3-7 Single Screw Vessel with Stern way. 
Propeller Backing 

Twin Screw Boats 

Since a twin-screw boat has two “thrust produ¬ 
cers” (propellers), one on each side of the center- 
line, it is usually a joy to maneuver at low speeds. 
By going ahead on one screw and backing down on 
the other, the boat can be turned very easily and 
practically within her own length. 

Outboards and In/Out Drives 

These boats are steered by turning the line of 
thrust of the propellers. They have no rudders, al¬ 
though the lower units and shaft housings have some 
slight rudder effect. They pose no special problems 
in handling except that power is required to turn the 
boat. One cannot coast alongside and control the 


33 









heading of the boat by rudder action alone as is 
easily done with a conventional propeller and rud¬ 
der system. They are responsive and handy. For ex¬ 
ample, the stern can be moved toward or away from 
a pier or float by positioning the thrust angle prop¬ 
erly and applying just a touch of power. Thus, man 
euvering is much simpler with an outboard or I-O 
drive than with an inboard driven boat. Even back¬ 
ing down is easier though most outboard driven craft 
steer poorly while reversing because the bow tends 
to swing away from the line of travel. When making 
a partial or complete turn with an outboard, reduce 
speed and turn in an arc of sufficient width so the 
boat will stay on an even keel. Never attempt short 
turns at high speed. Countless capsizings have re¬ 
sulted from this foolhardy practice. 

The Technique of Docking and Maneuvering 

One of the best ways to judge the competence of 
a boatman is to observe the manner in which he gets 
his craft underway from a float or pier, and how he 
places his boat alongside the float when returning 
to his dock. 

One boat is seen to get underway as the result of 
much running back and forth and much pushing 
and pulling, all to the accompaniment of much 
shouting of orders, generally by everyone aboard to 
nobody in particular. Another boat is seen to get un¬ 
derway with all persons comfortably seated, the lines 
quietly let go, and the craft skillfully maneuvered 
clear of the float or pier. Both of these vessels have 
gotten underway successfully. Both have accomp¬ 
lished the same result—but what a difference in 
technique! 

At this point, the reader might argue that the first 
boatman could be comparatively new to the sport, 
while the second boatman obviously was an “old 
pro." It is conceded that this might well be the case 
but one does not advance from the first situation to 
the second without a thorough understanding of 
the forces at work, which may be encountered 
under varying conditions. 

Before Getting Underway 

Before getting underway, the prudent boatman 
will be found to be quite busy. Sailboat skippers 
generally check their rigging—stays, shrouds, hal¬ 


yards and sheets. Sails are made up and ready to 
hoist. Both sail and powerboat skippers should 
check all of the vessel’s systems and gear, usually 
with the aid of a check list. The fuel in the tanks 
should be measured (or the gauges read) and the 
engine oil level should be determined. All lights, 
including running lights, should be seen to be op¬ 
erating properly. The whistle or horn should be 
sounded briefly. (One possible exception to this 
would be if the departure were from a crowded 
anchorage and scheduled for 0500 hours!) The 
condition of the bilges should be checked. Hand 
lines should be broken out, ready for use. Anchors 
should be bent on and ready to let go. Lifesaving 
devices should be taken out of their lockers and 
placed in readily accessible places. All electronic 
gear which will be used should be turned on. Hatch 
covers shoud be open to allow engine and fuel tank 
spaces to ventilate and bilge blowers, if any, should 
be operating. A heaving line and boat hook should 
be available for instant use. In short, all equipment 
aboard should be determined to be in satisfactory 
operating condition. Only when this is done, is the 
vessel in condition to start the engine or engines. 

Starting Engines 

When ready to start engines, special precautions 
are taken. Even though the engine and fuel tank 
compartments have been thoroughly ventilated, it is 
still necessary to test for gas vapors which may be 
present in these spaces. This can be done by activat¬ 
ing an electronic vapor detector, or by activating our 
built-in vapor detector—the nose! The nose is gen¬ 
erally far more sensitive than a device in detecting 
gasoline vapors, and it is the nose that should be 
satisfied that no vapors are present. 

The proof of the pudding will be when the starter 
is engaged. It is at this point that ignition is intro¬ 
duced to the situation. If the proper mixture of gaso¬ 
line and air exists, it is at this point that the day’s 
activities could end abruptly in a flash of flame as 
the mixture explodes with great force. 

Once the engines are started, the temperature 
should be allowed to come up somewhat, to prevent 
stalling. However, excessive* idling should be avoid¬ 
ed. It is usually best to allow the engines to warm up 
under a load. 


34 


Getting Underway 

With the engines started, and all gauges reflecting 
desired readings, it is time to get underway. Before 
casting off the mooring lines, a careful inspection 
should be made of the immediate surroundings. All 
hazards and obstructions should be noted, and the 
direction and strength of the wind and current 
should be known. 

This chapter will develop situations which will 
be encountered while docking and getting under¬ 
way. Before getting into this, however, the boatman 
should be reminded that a slow speed should be 
maintained through crowded anchorage or marina 
areas. The boatman is legally responsible for any 
damage caused to others by his vessel’s wash. Most 
marinas have a 5-knot speed limit but this may be 
too fast if the wash doesn’t flatten appreciably with¬ 
in a few feet from the stern. All fenders (which 
may be dangling) should be taken in. Mooring and 
hand lines, and all loose gear about the decks, 
should be secured. 

Leaving the Dock 

Leaving a dock and returning to it require a cer¬ 
tain level of skill on the part of the boat operator. 
In all of the maneuvers involved in docking and 
leaving a dock, it is imperative that certain facts be 
kept clearly in mind. The first and most important 
point to remember is that the stern is the only part 
of the boat that can be steered. As stated earlier in 
this chapter, the stern moves sideways and must 
always be watched. This is not to say that the bow 
must not also be watched but all too many boat¬ 
men concentrate on the bow and in this concen¬ 
tration, slam the stern into the wharfs and floats 
with damaging results. 

Wind and Current 

There are also other factors at work however, if 
the boatman is alert, he can make these forces work 
for him. These forces, which are almost always 
present, are wind and current. Most boatmen (other 
than our sailboat friends) think of wind and cur¬ 
rent as hindrances. Both wind and current can be 
considerable help in maneuvering if the boatman 
knows how to employ them. 


One of the first surprises experienced by the new¬ 
comer to powerboat operation is the relatively great 
effect the wind has on his vessel. Deep draft boats, 
with comparatively low freeboard, are far less affect¬ 
ed by the wind than by the current. This is be¬ 
cause there is more underwater body for the cur¬ 
rent to work against on deep draft boats, while 
there is less topsides area (and cabin structure) 
against which the wind can work. Most powerboats 
are not deep draft vessels, and present high topsides 
and relatively large cabin areas to the wind. Many 
powerboats may be affected more by the wind than 
by the current. This is important to remember while 
underway; but it is most important to remember 
when maneuvering in close quarters. 

Generally, the bow of a powerboat has higher 
freeboard than the stern and is considerably less 
heavy. Consequently, the bow will almost always be 
blown downwind at a faster rate than the stem. 
This accounts for the characteristic of most power¬ 
boats to turn their stern into the wind if left to 
themselves. In some marina areas, where maneuver¬ 
ing is necessarily restricted to close quarters, it is 
not physically possible to get up enough way to 
bring the bow up into the wind. Under these con¬ 
ditions, the boatman has no choice but to go into 
reverse and cooperate with the wind instead of at¬ 
tempting to resist its effects. 

The Use of Lines 

We generally think of lines as simply a means of 
keeping a boat tied to a pier. These lines are known 

DOCKING LINES 



35 







as mooring lines, and it might be well to think about 
lines briefly before continuing on. 

The most often used mooring lines are the bow 
line and the stern line. These are simple to employ 
and are usually sufficient, provided that fenders are 
suspended from the hull at strategic points to keep 
the hull from chafing against the float. 

If the vessel is to be left alongside a pier or float 
for a long time, as with a permanent mooring, the 
use of breast lines and spring lines should be consid¬ 
ered. Breast lines prevent sideways movement and 
spring lines limit the fore-and-aft movement of the 
vessel. If moored to a pier or wharf in tidal areas, it 
is important to leave sufficient slack in all lines to 
accomodate the rise and fall of the tide. 

Spring lines may also be used in close quarters to 
help the vessel into or out of a slip or to facilitate 
maneuvers alongside a wharf. If the spring line is to 
be handled by those aboard the boat, both ends of 
the line should be aboard, with the bight around a 
bollard or cleat on the wharf. A spring line is let go 
by hauling in on one end of the line. If used under 
these conditions, a spring line must be tended care¬ 
fully to be certain that it does not become fouled on 
the rudder or propeller. Under no conditions should 
a spring line, which is being used to assist a maneu¬ 
ver, be tied off to a cleat or bitt aboard the boat. A 
half turn around the bitt or cleat is usually all that 
is required. The spring line should be able to be ad¬ 
justed as necessary and cast off quickly when no 
longer needed. 

Leaving a Slip 

In this case, and in all cases to follow, it is assum¬ 
ed that the vessel is a right-hand single-screw craft 
of inboard propulsion. 

Some boats depart from their slips by backing out 
and little trouble should be encountered with this 
maneuver. Once the engine has been started and all 
is ready, all lines are cast off. The rudder is placed 
amidships, with the engine in slow astern. The boat 
will back down slightly to port. At this point, the 
starboard bow should be tended carefully, as it 
might swing into the right hand finger pier or float. 
When the bow is clear, apply hard left rudder. The 
turn will become more pronounced. When suf¬ 


ficiently clear, apply hard right rudder and go 
ahead with a short burst of power. This should 
check the sternway and stop the boat. The rudder 
is now placed amidships (or as necessary to pick up 
the desired heading) and the boat proceeds under 
slow speed ahead. 

Qetting Underway from a Float, Pier or Wharf 

In many cases, a simple maneuver such as getting 
underway can be complicated by the presence of 
other craft immediately ahead or astern of your boat, 
thus severely restricting your choice of alternatives. 
Wind or current could also become a factor in the 
sense that the boat is being blown onto or away 
from the float. 

Leaving a Dock, Wind Blowing off the Float 

In this case, the wind will be of considerable help 
in getting clear. Cast off the stern line, then the bow 
line. The boat will drift clear, with the bow falling 
off more rapidly than the stern. When sufficiently 
clear of all obstructions, place the engine in slow 
ahead and proceed in the desired direction. 

Leaving a Dock, Wind Blowing onto the Float 

Getting away from a float, when the boat is being 
set onto it by the wind, will generally require the use 
of a spring line. Cast off the stern line and hold an 
after bow spring line. Have fenders over the star¬ 
board bow and tend the line carefully. Go ahead 
slowly with full right rudder. The spring line should 
check the forward movement and the stern will 
swing away from the float and into the wind. Ad¬ 
just the engine speed as necessary to overcome the 



3-9 Leaving a Dock, Wind Blowing onto the Float 


36 











force of the wind. When the stern is clear of all 
obstructions, put the rudder over to hard right, 
place the engine in slow astern, and cast off the 
spring line. The boat will back directly into the 
wind. Adjust the helm as necessary to avoid over¬ 
steering and, when sufficiently clear of the float, 
go ahead with a short burst of power to check the 
sternway. From this position, come right or left 
to the desired heading under slow ahead. 

Leaving a Dock, Wind on the Bow 

In this case, the wind can be of considerable help. 
Cast off the bow line and hold a forward quarter 


wind Of cufrenf 


I 

: ! 

3-10 Leaving a Dock-Wind on the Bow 


spring line. This will allow the bow to fall off, away 
from the float. It might be necessary to start this by 
a gentle push with a boat hook against the float. 
When the bow has fallen off sufficiently to be clear 
of all obstructions, cast off the spring line and go 
ahead slowly with left rudder. 

If the desired direction of travel is downwind, ex¬ 
ecute the above maneuver with the spring line on 
the outboard quarter cleat. Hold the spring line un¬ 
til the wind has blown the bow sufficiently clear. 
Cast off the spring and go ahead slowly with right 
rudder. 


Leaving a Dock, Wind on the Stern 

Cast off the stern line and hold an after bow 
spring line. Have fenders over the port bow and tend 
the line carefully. Go ahead slowly with full left 
rudder. The stern will swing away from the float. 
When the stern is sufficiently clear of all obsfruc- 
tions, place the rudder amidships, cast off the spring 
line and place the engine in slow astern. The boat 
will back into the wind with the bow tending to 
fall off to starboard. When clear, go ahead with a 
short burst of power to check the sternway. Go 
ahead slowly with right rudder. 

In close quarters, where there is little room to ma¬ 
neuver, it is usually not practical to attempt to bring 
the bow into the wind. If the desired direction of 
travel is upwind, it is generally best to travel under 
sternway to a point where there is more space to ma¬ 
neuver. 

Using Eow Spring 

to clear dock when hemmed in 



3-11 Using the Bow Spring Line 


Turning in a Narrow Channel 

In some cases it may be necessary to make a com 
plete 180® turn in a channel that is too narrow 
when compared to the boat’s minimum turning 
circle. If the boat is a right-hand-screw vessel, start 
the turn as close to the left hand side of the chan¬ 
nel as possible, Put the rudder over to hard right 
and LEAVE IT THERE. Alternately go ahead and 
reverse until the turn is complete. When the boat is 
properly aligned with the channel in the opposite 
direction, put the rudder amidships and proceed 
under slow speed ahead. 




37 
















. CORRECT 2 

1 




3 /. 


r\ 




■ ] 

tNCOlifllCT] 




3-12 Turning a Right Hand Screw Boat 
in a Narrow Channel 

If the desired new direction of travel is into the 
wind and if the wind is sufficiently strong to cause 
considerable leeway, a turn in a narrow channel un¬ 
der these conditions may not be possible without 
the use of an anchor. The procedure in this case is 
to quickly lower a bow anchor and fall back on this 
anchor until the bow is into the wind. Tlie anchor 
rode is picked up as the boat heads into the wind to 
the position of the anchor. This maneuver requires 
quick action on the part of the person tending the 
anchor and is not recommended for the average 
boatman except in extreme cases. 


Mooring to a Pier, Float or Wharf 

Docking a boat can be a source of pride or em- 
barassment. Frequently, a would-be salt approaches 
a pier at breakneck speed, throws everything into 
reverse and if he doesn’t plow through the pier, he 
gets alongside just in time for his own wake to 
pound his boat against the pilings. 

Don't be a ‘'hot rodder." Make the landing ap¬ 
proach cautiously and slowly. All that is needed is 
enough speed for the boat to respond to the rudder. 
It may not look as spectacular but it is certainly 
better seamanship, safer and in many cases, much 
cheaper. It is also good seamanship to have fenders, 
mooring lines, a heaving line and at least one long 
line ready well in advance of actual docking. 


Because of the varied construction of piers and 
floats, you will not always have a choice of which 
side of the pier or float to make your landing. With 
a right-handed screw vessel, is is usually easier to get 
alongside port-side-to than to get in starboard-side- 
to. \^enever wind or current is a factor in the situa¬ 
tion, the approach should, if possible, be made from 
downwind or downstream. In this way, the bow will 
be headed into the wind or current. Downwind land¬ 
ings are difficult and require a higher degree of skill 
than landings into the wind but there may be cer¬ 
tain situations where this cannot be avoided. All 
landings should be carefully planned in advance but 
downwind landings require extra care and planning. 
A mistake under these conditions will usually cause 
the boat to slam into a wharf or into another boat 
with costly results. 


DOCKING AGAINST WIND OR CURRENT 


V 



3-13 Docking Against Wind or Currents 


Docking with no Wind or Current 

A landing is usually made by bringing one of the 
bows alongside the wharf or float under slow head¬ 
way and reversing to stop the boat. If there is no 
wind or current, a boat with a right-hand screw 
should land portside to the wharf. When the port 
bow is put alongside and the boat is backed to 
check the headway, the sidewise presure of the 
backing screw sends the stem alongside. In a 
starboard-side-to landing, the same propeller effect 
sends the stem away from the float. It is obvious 


38 



3-14 Effect of Backing Propeller 

then, that a starboard-side-to landing must be made 
at a very flat angle to the float and with as little 
headway as possible so that little or no backing is 
necessary. 


stern line ashore and secure the engine. Adjust 
mooring lines as ncessary. 

Docking, Wind Blowing onto the Float 

The approach should be made at a flat angle, keep¬ 
ing in mind the tendency of the wind to blow the 
boat toward the float. Since the bow will fall off 
more than the stem, a certain amount of left rud¬ 
der must be held to maintain the desired heading. 
Plenty of fenders should be rigged along the star¬ 
board side. When in the proper position, reverse the 
engine to check the headway. The boat will come 
alongside parallel to the float. This could be a hard 
landing, depending on the strength of the wind. 
DO NOT use arms or legs to fend off as the boat 
approaches the float. Many an arm and leg has 
been broken or crushed in this manner. The fenders 
should cushion the shock, with an assist from a 
judiciously employed boathook or two. When 
alongside, send mooring lines ashore and adjust as 
necessary. 


Docking, Wind Blowing off the Float 

The approach must be made at a relatively sharp 
angle since the wind will tend to blow the bow 
down. It will be necessary to hold a certain amount 
of right rudder to maintain the conect heading. 
A fender should be rigged on the starboard bow. 



3-15 Docking from Leeward 

When close aboard, send the bow line ashore and 
put the rudder over to hard left. Go ahead on 
the bow line, which will act as an after bow spring. 
The stern will come alongside the float. Send the 



- riRiJ • - 

DOCKING FROM WINDWARD 

3-16 Docking from Windward 

Twin-Screw Maneuvering 

Up to this point, we have been concerned only 
with the handling characteristics of right-hand-sin- 
gle-screw boats. The great majority of pleasure 
power craft fall within this category. However, twin- 
screw boats are rapidly increasing in popularity and 
a few words on the handling characteristics of twin- 
screw boats are in order. 

On twin-screw boats with inboard-outdrive units, 
both propellers are right-handed; but on most twin- 
screw inboards the starboard propeller is right-hand- 



39 


















ed and the port propeller is left-handed. The first 
thing to remember about an inboard twin-screw boat 
is that it is infinitely more maneuverable than a sin¬ 
gle-screw boat in close quarters. There are two pro¬ 
pellers, turning outboard, positioned on either side 
of the center line. Twin rudders, which are found 
on almost all modern twin-screw pleasure boats, are 
positioned directly behind each propeller. The basic 
principles which apply to single-screw craft with re¬ 
gard to propeller action also apply to each propeller 
of a twin-screw boat. The important difference is 
that, with counter-rotating screws, each propeller 
can be made to cancel out the undesirable effects of 
the other. This concept can be used to advantage in 
maneuvering in close quarters since the effects of the 
two propeller thrusts can be individually controlled. 

In order to understand the principles of twin- 
screw boat handling, it is necessary to observe the 
effects of each screw individually. Let’s assume that 
the starboard engine is going ahead, the port en¬ 
gine is in neutral and the rudders are amidships. 
(Since the rudders operate in unison and are not 
separately controlled, we will refer to the movement 
of the rudders in the singular — simply as “rudder 
amidships.”) With the starboard engine going 
ahead and the port engine in neutral, the boat will 
follow a course which can best be described as a 
wide turn to port. The craft will tend to follow an 
extension of the curve of the starboard gunwale. 

If the starboard engine were to be placed in re¬ 
verse, again with the port engine in neutral and the 
rudder amidships, the boat would tend to follow an 
extension of the curve of the starboard gunwale but 
under sternway. 

If the port engine were engaged, with the star¬ 
board engine in neutral, the boat would tend to fol¬ 
low an extension of the port gunwale, both in 
ahead and in reverse. 

A twin-screw boat can be made to turn complete¬ 
ly in little more than her own length by going 
ahead on one engine and astern on the other. In 
the case of the starboard engine going ahead and 
the port engine backing, the combination of the 
reactions set up will turn the vessel without recourse 
to the rudder, and without the necessity of having 
either headway or sternway. 

Since a boat is more efficient when going ahead 


than when going astern, the effect of the propeller 
going ahead is greater than that of the one going 
astern. If both engines are set at the same rpm’s, a 
certain amount of headway will be made while piv¬ 
oting. This can be cancelled out by increasing the 
rpm’s of the backing engine just enough to offset 
the headway. 

If the craft has single lever controls, the pivoting 
maneuver is simple enough, with only two controls 
for the operator to manipulate. If the throttles and 
the transmissions are separately controlled, the first¬ 
time twin-screw operator may find that he has too 
many controls to operate at the same time. Most 
twin-screw boat operators set both engines at a fast 
idle and forget about them. Since the rudder is not 
used in the maneuver, it too can be forgotten. This 
leaves only the two gear levers for the operator to 
manipulate. 

Docking the Twin-Screw Boat 

The approach to a float, pier or wharf is similar 
to the previously discussed techniques for a single¬ 
screw boat since the ever-present wind is non-selec- 
tive and will cause the bow of a twin-screw craft to 
fall off just as it does with a single-screw boat. 
When the bow is alongside, the outboard engine is 
reversed to bring the stern in toward the wharf. On 
a portside- to landing, the starboard engine is re¬ 
versed; and on a starboard-side-to landing, the port 
engine is reversed. Because of the two engines, land¬ 
ing can be made on either side with ease by al¬ 
ways reversing the outboard engine to bring the 
stern in. 

Undocking the Twin-Screw Boat 

Again, the basic principles discussed concerning 
single-screw craft apply. When getting away with 
the use of an after bow spring (if tied portside to 
the float), go ahead on the starboard engine with 
full left rudder to spring the stem clear. Once clear 
of all obstructions, both engines can be regulated as 
to speed. A twin-screw boat backs well because of 
the counter rotation of the propeller blades which 
cancel out the effects of individual propeller torque. 

Underway with a Twin-Screw Boat 

While underway, the advantages of the twin pro¬ 
pellers may appear to have been lost. This is not so. 


40 


By adjusting (increasing) the rpm’s of the leeward 
engine, the effects of leeway caused by wind or cur¬ 
rent can be overcome without constantly holding a 
right or left rudder to maintain the desired heading. 
Increase the rpm's of the leeward engine a little at 
a time until the bow ceases to fall off. The boat will 
now maintain heading with little or no rudder cor¬ 
rection necessary. 

If the rudder is damaged in any manner while un¬ 
derway, the twin-screw boat can be steered quite 
efficiently by judicious use of the throttles. Either 
the port or the starboard engine is set at a desired 
speed and the other is speeded up or slowed down 
to accomplish steering. Assuming that we set the 
port engine at 2800 rpm’s (or any convenient 
speed), the boat can be turned to the left by speed¬ 
ing up the starboard engine, or turned to the right 
by decreasing the starboard engine’s rpm’s. 


The average boatman who “graduates” from a 
single-screw to a twin-screw boat historically tends 
to become “lazy” in his maneuvering. This is due 
to the fact that less precision is required. With a 
single screw boat, he had to carefully pre-plan his 
landings, or other maneuvers, since he could gen¬ 
erally depend on getting only one opportunity to 
make his move. On a landing for instance, if he 
made a mistake, he could try to back down and re¬ 
cover but in most instances, he was committed on 
his first approach. A mistake in landing with a sin¬ 
gle-screw boat usually results in a collision, with 
subsequent damage to his boat or to some other 
object. 

On the other hand, the twin-screw boat operator 
can make a mistake on his approach, stop, back 
down, and make another approach. Since the twin- 
screw boat will back to port, to dead astern or to 
starboard, the operator tends to be more relaxed. He 



3-17 Typical Mooring Rig 


41 



















can, with equanimity, become “lazy” and, because 
of the forgiving qualities and the versatility of his 
vessel, can usually get away with it. 

Mooring to a Buoy 

Mooring buoys, like all buoys, are secured to per¬ 
manent anchors sunk deeply into the bottom. 
Mooring buoys are usually found near a yacht club, 
in a harbor, or other places where vessels congre¬ 
gate. It should be noted that mooring buoys are 
established and maintained specifically for mooring 
purposes and that they are the only buoys to which 
pleasure boatmen may legally moor their vessels. 
Mooring to an aid to navigation is illegal and if the 
aid is that of a public agency, it is a violation of pub¬ 
lic law. Mooring buoys offer safe, convenient an¬ 
chorages, eliminating the need for the boatman to 
use his own anchor. These buoys also have the ef¬ 
fect of keeping many craft anchored in close prox¬ 
imity of each other in an orderly manner. 

The Mooring 

A mooring usually has four major parts. These are 
(1) an anchor (usually very heavy); (2) an anchor 
cable or chain leading from the anchor to a buoy on 
the surface which is called a mooring buoy; (3) 
a mooring pendant consisting of a wire cable or fiber 
line attached to the mooring buoy; and (4) a small 
pick-up float which is attached to the pendant and 
makes it quite simple to grasp. A boat is moored by 
securing the end of the pendant to a bitt or cleat, on 
the bow of the vessel. 

When picking up a mooring, approach the.moor¬ 
ing buoy against the force of the wind or current, 
whichever is stronger. If other boats are moored in 
the vicinity, observe how they are heading. They 
will be heading into the wind or current and you- 
can adjust your approach to roughly parallel them, 
proceeding upwind. Disengage the clutch when you 
see that you have enough forward motion to reach 
the buoy. Have a person on the bow pick up the 
pick-up float, bring the pendant aboard, and secure 
it to a bow bitt or cleat. Use your engine to maneu¬ 
ver as necessary. After the pendant is made fast, 
stop the engine and let the boat drift back on the 
anchor rode. 

Leaving the mooring is a fairly simple operation. 
About the only difficulty you may have is the possi¬ 


bility of getting the pendant fouled in your rudder 
or propeller. When the pendant is let go, go astern 
slowly until you have enough room to maneuver 
without hitting the buoy or fouling the pendant. 

Anchoring 

The art of anchoring should be mastered by every 
boatman, if only for his own protection. Many pleas¬ 
ure boatmen become very proficient in navigation 
and boat handling but neglect the important prob¬ 
lem of anchoring once their destination has been 
reached. The general term applied to all equipment 
used for anchoring a vessel is ground tackle. A large 
percentage of pleasure boats are poorly equipped in 
this respect. The selection of ground tackle must be 
made with due regard to a number of factors. 

There are so many variables in the requirements 
for adequate ground tackle that it is not possible to 
establish a firm set of rules. Among the factors 
which must be considered are the type and weight of 
the vessel and the character of bottom found in the 
locality. The average depth of water in the anchor¬ 
age area and the relative strength of the prevailing 
wind and current should also be considered. Suffice 
it to say that, unless the ground tackle can be de¬ 
pended upon to hold securely even while the boat 
is unattended, it is not adequate for the task. 



3-18 After Anchoring Check Position 
with Land Objects 


Each boat should carry at least two anchors. One 
anchor may be of light weight and small size for easy 
handling. This anchor may be used in good weather 
when anchoring in protected areas for a relatively 
short time. The other anchor should be larger and 
heavier for use during bad weather conditions or 


42 



when you intend to anehor overnight when there 
might be danger of dragging the anehor. The size of 
the anehors will depend on the size of the boat on 
which they will be used. Do not trust your own 
judgement in selecting these anchors. Get expert ad¬ 
vice or use the manufacturers' recommendations. 

Types of Anchors 

There are many types of anchors available on the 
market. For the average pleasure boat, the so-called 
patent anchor is recommended. These anchors 
may be known by the names of their manufacturers 
and have great holding power for their weight. The 
following types of anchors are available for the 
pleaure boatman of today. 

Yachtsmans Anchor 

The yachtman's anchor is an adaption 
of the age-old kedge, redesigned to over¬ 
come some of the hedge’s objectionable 
features. The plane of the stock is per¬ 
pendicular to that of the arm and the 
stock is at the head. It has a sharp bill for 
good penetration of the bottom and the 
fluke is diamond-shaped to permit the 
cable to slip past it without fouling as the 
boat swings with changing current or 
shifting tide. 

Mushroom Anchor 

The mushroom is stockless, with a cast 
iron bowl at the end of the shank. The 
mushroom anchor is used principally for 
permanent moorings. This anchor will 
gradually sink deeply into the bottom and 
when so embedded, has tremendous hold¬ 
ing power. 

Fisherman s Anchor 

This is a small mushroom type anchor 
which depends mainly on weight for 
holding power. It is used principally by 
small boat and skiff fishermen for deep 
or protected anchoring. 

Grapnel 

The grapnel has a straight shank with 
four or five curved claw-like arms. It is 


used mostly for recovering lost articles or 
objects. When used as an anchor, it is 
used on bottoms of rock or coral, with the 
deliberate intention of hooking it under 
a rock or coral head. A trip line, attached 
to the crown, is a must for retrieving it 
from the bottom. 

Northill 

The Northill anchor has a stock at the 
crown instead of at the head. The arm is 
at right angles to the shank and the broad 
flukes are set at an angle carefully designed 
to assure a quick bite and and penetra¬ 
tion. The sharp point on the bill causes 
the anchor to dig into the bottom as soon 
as a pull is placed on the cable. 

CQR Plow 

This anchor is of British design and 
takes its name from the design of'its 
flukes, which resemble a plow. This an¬ 
chor is designed to lie on its side on the 
bottom. When a pull is placed on the 
cable, the flukes dig in quickly and deep¬ 
ly. The COR Plow is an efficient anchor 
but is clumsy to handle and stow. It is 
now manufactured in this countr}’ and 
is gradually gaining favor among boat¬ 
men. 

Danforth 

The Danforth anchor is a by-product of 
World War II. Many thousands of these 
anchors (up to 3,000 lbs.) were used to 
pull landing craft off the beachheads of 
the Pacific. The Danforth anchor is light¬ 
weight and is characterized by long nar¬ 
row twin flukes pivoted at one end of a 
relatively long shank. The stock is at¬ 
tached to the rear of the flukes. The 
flukes engage the bottom quickly and the 
anchor tends to burj' completely under 
heavy strain. 


The Navy anchor is found principally 
on large vessels. Because it is stockless, it 
stows conveniently in hawse pipes. Large 



3-19 Various Types of Anchors 


44 



vessels have an ample supply of power to 
handle heavy anchors. The Navy anchor 
has a very high ratio of weight to holding 
power. On small craft, a Navy anchor 
heavy enough to provide adequate hold¬ 
ing power is a backbreaker to handle. If 
the weight is kept down to make it easier 
to handle, its holding power is highly 
questionable. Several adaptations of the 
Navy type are on the market today, 
designed specifically for small craft. 
Some of these are quite adequate. 

Rode and Scope 

The size and length of the anchor rode will de¬ 
pend on the size of the anchor and the depth of the 
water. The rode is the anchor line and chain on 
which a boat is riding. Scope is the length of the 


anchor rode. Anchors hold best when the pull of the 
rode on the shank of the anchor is as near to hori¬ 
zontal as possible. For this reason, the holding pow¬ 
er of an anchor increases as the scope is increased. A 
ratio of 7 to 1, that is a scope equal to seven times 
the depth of the water, is considered best for most 
anchoring purposes. A ratio of 5 to 1 is adequate 
but 3 to 1 is poor unless the weather is excellent, 
the consistency of the bottom is also excellent and 
the rise and fall of the tide is not excessive. 

How to Anchor Your Boat 

There are just a few simple rules to remember 
when anchoring. Head your boat into the wind 
or current. Reduce speed and make sure your an¬ 
chor cable is ready for free running. Reverse the 
engine and when the boat starts to make a slight 
sternway through the water lower the anchor. 



3-20 Proper Anchoring 

45 




Make sure that you are not standing on any part of 
the line as it goes over the side and always be sure 
that the end of the anchor cable is secured to the 
boat. This end of the cable is known as the bitter 
end. Perhaps one reason for this term is that you 
would feel quite bitter as you watched the end of 
the line slither over the side. Actually, it is so 
named because it is the end of the line that is tied 
to the bitt. The loss of anchor and line in this man¬ 
ner has embarrassed more than one boatman. 

When sufficient cable is out, usually five to 
seven times the depth of the water, stop the engine 
and make the cable fast to a foru’ard cleat or bitt to 
make the anchor dig into the bottom. A definite 
halt in the drifting of the boat should be felt as the 
anchor digs in. It is wise at this time to take a sight 
on some stationary' object on shore to make certain 
that vour anchor is not dragging on the bottom. If 
the anchor is not holding, it can usuallly be made 
to bite in by letting out more line. Bear in mind 
that an anchor will usually hold better in mud than 
in sand, so it is good practice to check the char¬ 
acter of the bottom. This can be done by either 
looking on your chart or lowering an armed lead. 
An armed lead is a lead which has a hollowed bot¬ 
tom and is armed with tallow, wax, chewing gum 
or bedding compound. This will bring up a sample 
of the bottom. Be sure to take adequate precau¬ 
tions not to let out so much cable that a changing 
wind will swing your boat into another boat, buoy, 
wharf, or onto the shore. If the wind or sea condi¬ 
tions deteriorate while at anchor, take frequent 
bearings to make sure that the anchor is not drag¬ 
ging. If it is dragging, let out more cable. If this 
is not practical for the reasons mentioned above, it 
might be prudent to weigh anchor and set it again 
in a better location. 

Weighing Anchor 

When you are ready to leave the anchorage, start 
the engine and be certain that it is operating prop¬ 
erly. Then go ahead slowly to a position directlv 
above the anchor. Have a person on the bow take 
up the slack in the cable as you proceed. Whipping 
the line up and down as it comes up will help free 
it of weeds and grass before it comes on deck. Or¬ 
dinarily, the anchor will break free of the bottom 
when the cable stands vertically. It can then be 
raised to the deck and stowed. 


If the anchor does not break free as the result of 
a good vertical heave, secure the line to a bitt and 
go ahead slowly for a few yards. If the anchor still 
does not break free, it is probably fouled. One way 
to attempt to clear it is to make the line fast to a 
bitt, and then run the boat slowly in wide circles 
on a taut line. In those cases where the anchor will 
not break out under any circumstances, the boat 
should be run up as close as possible, the anchor 
cable cut and a marker float attached to mark the 
remaining end. This will make it possible to at¬ 
tempt to retrieve the anchor later. 

Heavy Weather Boat Handling 

Although recreational boating is intended prim¬ 
arily to provide recreation, it also entails responsi¬ 
bilities. To some, responsibility is a part of the pleas¬ 
ure of boating. To others, it is accepted as a neces¬ 
sary part of the sport. However, a few boatmen fail 
to assume the necessary responsibility, and these 
persons become contributors to the accidents, and 
resultant tragedies, which occur on our waters. The 
small boat owner/operator cannot escape the re¬ 
sponsibility he assumes when he takes persons 
aboard with him. He is morally and legally respon¬ 
sible for the lives and well-being of all aboard his 
craft and also the lives of others in the sense that 
their rights must be respected and observed. This 
responsibility could be divided into two major re¬ 
quirements. The first is that the vessel must be sea¬ 
worthy in all aspects. The second is that it must 
be operated in such a manner as to insure the safety 
of all concerned. 

A good portion of the first requirement can be 
purchased. The boatman should be careful to buy 
a sound boat and good equipment. With regard to 
the second requirement, emphasis should be placed 
on knowledge and experience. When a vessel leaves 
a dock or mooring, she is in the sole charge of her 
skipper. His subsequent actions will depend to a 
large measure on how well he has prepared himself 
to accept his responsibilities. 

In United States Coast Guard Auxiliary public 
education courses, great emphasis is placed on 
safety. This might ver\’ well give the student the 
impression that pleasure boats operate under the 
threat of constant danger. In this respect, it should 
be pointed out that little skill is required to operate 


46 


a well-found boat on a calm day in uncongested 
waters. Adverse conditions, caused by weather or 
some failure of equipment or personnel, require 
skillful judgement based on knowledge and under¬ 
standing of the potential hazards of the sea and the 
means of combatting them. 

Waves 

Waves are undulations on the surface of the wa¬ 
ter This phenomenon is most widely observed but 
least understood by the average boatman. Conse¬ 
quently, a few words about waves, their causes and 
effects, should be in order. 

Waves are caused principally by the wind. Other 
causes are submarine earthquakes, volcanic erup¬ 
tions and the tides. Ripples form if a breeze of less 
than two knots blows across the surface of the wa¬ 
ter. If this breeze were to stop suddenly, the rip¬ 
ples would soon disappear. If the wind exceeds two 
knots, more stable gravity waves are formed. These 
progress in the direction of the generating wind. 
Unlike wind or current, gravity waves are not affect¬ 
ed by the rotation of the earth. When the wind 
ceases to blow, energy is no longer transferred to 
the wave (now called a “swell”) and its height be¬ 
gins to diminish. This reduction takes place quite 
slowly. If a wave is of sufficient strength, it will con¬ 
tinue to travel until it reaches shore. In the deep 
waters of the open seas, “old” waves tend to take 
on a characteristic shape known as a cycloid. These 
have gentle slopes, rounded troughs and crests that 
are somewhat sharper than the slopes. The term 
employed to describe this type of wave is “swell” 
or “ground swell.” 

The distance between consecutive crests is called 
the wave length and the vertical distance between 
the crest and the trough is called the wave height. 

Small craft are generally quite comfortable in this 
type of sea as they move smoothly up and down 
without any violent motions. 

As the waves approach the shore and the water be¬ 
gins to shoal, the waves start to feel bottom. When 
the depth of the water shoals to about one-half of 
the wave length, the wave begins to decrease in vel- 
ocitv and increase in height. As the depth of the 
water becomes more shallow, the velocity continues 
to decrease, while the crests become sharper and the 


wave length becomes shorter. Eventually, the waves 
begin to “pile up” on the shore. At this point, the 
velocity will begin to increase again, and when the 
wave’s height is about one-seventh of its length, the 
top of the wave will begin to curl and break. Shallow 
water breakers have a strong horizontal flow in ad¬ 
dition to their vertical motion. Also, a strong return 
flow opposes the base of the advancing waves. 

Except in very shallow waters, the horizontal flow 
of water caused by a wave is negligible. Wave mo¬ 
tion at sea is energ}’ moving through the water, not 
the water itself rushing along. This can best be vis¬ 
ualized if you have ever seen the waves caused by 
wind in a field of wheat. Each stalk sways back and 
forth but the wheat does not pile up at the down¬ 
wind end of the field. The motion of a given particle 
of water in a wave is quite similar to the action of 
the wheat. If this particle of water were on the sur¬ 
face, it would rise as the wave crest approached, with 
a slight forward motion. As the crest passed, it would 
descend, with a slight backward motion. The speed 
of this slight horizontal motion would increase at 
the crest and slow down in the trough. When added 
to the vertical motion of rising and falling, a given 
particle of water would roughly describe a circle (in 
a vertical plane) as each wave passes. 

Because of the many independent wave systems 
in the sea at the same time, the surface acquires a 
complex and irregular pattern. Longer wave systems 
outrun shorter ones as the systems interfere with one 
another. This is the principal reason that successive 
wave crests are not the same height. This may be 
further accentuated by wave systems crossing each 
other at an angle. On occasion, this condition will 
produce peak-like rises. 

In very heavy weather, waves with breaking crests 
may form well out to sea. This is an extremely dan¬ 
gerous condition for the small boat operator and 
should be avoided if at all possible. The boatman 
should get weather information before setting out. 

Heavy Weather 

At the first warning of heavy weather, whether it 
be by observation of the skies or by radio warnings, 
the boatman should rig for heavy weather by taking 
certain precautions before the weather hits. All 
hatches and portholes should be secured and all 
loose gear lashed down. Life lines should be rigged 


47 


and extra lines should be readily available. If you 
are in shallow water, be certain that the ground 
tackle is in condition to let go quickly. If in deeper 
water, the sea anchor should be broken out and 
made ready for use if necessary. If you are towing a 
dinghy, either bring it aboard or set it far back on a 
heavy tow line. Set the tow line so that the dinghy 
will ride in step with your boat. The sea 
characteristics of your vessel and your dinghy are 
simply not the same. In many cases during a blow, a 
dinghy has become troublesome and difficult to 
control. In extreme cases, cut the dinghy painter and 
abandon it. Be sure the first aid kit is available and if 
is to be a strong blow, put on your personal flotation 
devices. Secure the galley and put out all fires. It 
might be a good idea to prepare sandwiches or other 
food rations against the time when they will be most 
welcome. Finally, just before the weather hits, get 
the best navigational fix that you can. In the 
decreased visibility, you might not be able to see 
landmarks as well as you could in clear weather. 

Heavy weather, in itself, does not place the small 
crAft in danger. It will, however, test the mettle of 
both the vessel and her crew. It is comforting to 
note that a well-found boat, manned by a knowl¬ 
edgeable skipper and an able crew, is usually equal 
to the task. 

Running Into a Sea 

As the seas build up, the bow of your boat will be 
driven into the waves with increasing force instead 
of being lifted, as is the case in calmer water. This 
causes the boat to take a tremendous pounding. 
Heavy objects could break loose and become verit¬ 
able battering rams. The violent action of the hull 
could cause serious falls within the boat. Injuries 
caused at this time are most difficult to treat be¬ 
cause of the boat’s unpredictable and violent mo¬ 
tion. The propeller is alternately submerged and 
out of the water, causing the engine to be loaded 
one moment and racing wildly the next. In this 
condition, the boat, her crew, and all the boat’s 
gear are under extreme stress and steps must be 
taken immediately to reduce this stress. 

The first thing to do is slow down. Many inexper¬ 
ienced boatmen, caught in their first storm, are un¬ 
able to resist the temptation to run helter skelter for 


the nearest port. This would have been an excellent 
idea before the storm arrived, provided a safe harbor 
were near enough to reach in time. But now, it is too 
late! By slowing down, the bow will tend to lift with 
the waves, as the natural force of buoyancy is again 
allowed to function. Take the seas slightly off the 
bow, preferrably at an angle approaching 45°. This 
will cause the boat to roll and pitch, but it is far 
easier on both boat and crew than the violent mo¬ 
tions of pitching alone. If unable to make headway 
under these conditions, it is advisable to lay to. Most 
power craft, if left to their own resources, turn their 
stern into the wind. This is patently unacceptable 
in these circumstances, so it will be necessary to use 
enough power to keep the bow up into the wind, ad¬ 
justing the speed so that you will be making neither 
headway nor sternway. If the storm is of long dura¬ 
tion, fuel may become a real problem. If this causes 
concern, it might be best to fall back on a sea 
anchor. The sea anchor should be securely attached 
to the rode and the bitter end of the rode should be 
secured to a bow bitt or cleat before the sea anchor 
is set out. A trip line should be tied to the cone end 
of the sea anchor, to facilitate its retrieval when 
necessary. The sea anchor is hauled in backwards 
by pulling in the trip line. When the sea anchor 
is set out, the boat will fall back on the line, and 
the bow will be held into the wind. This may not 
be very comfortable, but it is the best you can do 
under the circumstances. Depending on the size of 
the sea anchor, the drift will be drastically reduced. 
Try to keep the center of gravity as low as possible 
by keeping all persons down or near the bottom of 
the boat. This will make the boat more stable and 
reduce the chance of capsizing. 



3-21 Use of a Sea Anchor 


48 



Running in a Beam Sea 

Running in a beam sea or “in the trough," as it 
is commonly called, is an acceptable procedure only 
under conditions of comparative calm. In a beam 
sea, the waves are acting directly on the vessel's sides 
(coming from abeam) and, in rough water, could 
roll some boats over on their side. If the required 
course is laid so that you are in the trough and the 
action of the boat becomes excessive, it might be 
best to change course slightly to take the seas off the 
bow or quarter. In order to make the desired land¬ 
fall it may be necessary to sail a “zig-zag" course, 
taking the seas off the bow for awhile, then off the 
quarter. The distance travelled over the water will 
be longer and your time of arrival will be later, but 
this change of plan is highly preferrable to a change 
of plan occasioned by capsizing at sea with all 
hands ending up in the water. 

IIO-ZAGGING THROUGH HEAVY SEAS 



I 

3-22 Zig-Zagging Through Heavy Seas 
Running Before the Sea 

When a vessel sails in the same direction that the 
seas are running, it is running before the sea or 
running in a following sea. On the high seas, a 
following sea is usually no more than a nuisance. 
Precise attention to the rudder is required, as 
the turning action of the hull appears to be more 
lively and diEicult to control. Inexperienced boat¬ 
men in their first following sea, tend to overcontrol, 
with the result that they find themselves wandering 
all over the ocean. 

In shallow bays and large shallow lakes, following 
seas often build up to the point where it becomes 
extremely dangerous for small craft. This danger is 


confined principally to power craft, which usually 
have large transom areas. Sailing vessels and craft 
with “double ender" hulls generally experience little 
difficulty in following seas because of their stream¬ 
lined underwater shape. The force of the water, 
acting on the relatively large non-streamlined 
transom of a power cruiser can cause the boat to 
yaw wildly from side to side. On some boats, the 
rudder and propeller can be lifted clear of the water 
as the stern is picked up by an approaching wave. 
If the boat is yawing at the time the stern is lifted 
clear of the water, the boat is completely out of 
control and could be thrown broadside into the 
trough and rolled over by the next wave. This is 
known as going into a broach and should be avoid¬ 
ed at all costs. 



3-23 Broaching 

The secret of avoiding a broach is to keep yawing 
under control at all times. It is important to keep 
sideways motion to a minimum. This can be ac¬ 
complished only when the rudder is in the water. 
The rudder can be kept “wet" by slowing down as 
the wave approaches the stem and allowing the 
wave to pass under. The rpm’s are then increased 
slightly until the next wave approaches the stem, 
rpm's are again reduced long enough to let the 
next following wave pass under. By judicious use of 
the throttle and the rudder, yawing can be kept to a 
minimum. It is important to remember that a yaw 
can quickly become a broach. Once the broach has 
started, it is almost impossible to stop. 

At this point, one might arrive at the conclusion 
that running before the sea is a lot of hard work. The 
fact is that it is a lot of hard work. Both the throttle 
and the rudder must be tended constantly. In a very 


49 


heavy following sea, rudder action has been known 
on occasion to become reversed. Hard right rudder, 
in these circumstances could send the stern to the 
right instead of to the left. Under conditions as 
extreme as this, a heavy line or small sea anchor 




DROGUE TRIPPED WHEN NECESSARY 
TO ESCAPE BREAKING CREST 

3-24 Drogue Used with (Following Seas 

trailed far astern will help to “nail the stern down" 
and make the yawing tendency easier to control. 

Control of the engine rpm’s in a heavy following 
sea cannot be over-emphasized. Unless the boat is 
slowed down appreciably as the wave approaches 
the stern, the vessel will be picked up by the wave 
and may find itself racing down the forward face of 
the wave at a greatly increased speed. While this 
might seem exciting, it could become too exciting 
as the boat races forward and plows into the trough, 
burying the bow well under in the process. The fol¬ 
lowing wave might well pick up the stern and, with 
the bow deeply set in the water, flip the boat end 
over end. This is known as pitchpoling and is ex¬ 
tremely dangerous. It is a sad fact that either a 
broach or a pitchpole has an air of finality about it. 
The usual result of either is loss of life and property. 
Needless to say, either can happen instantly in a 
strong following sea and makes running before the 
sea potentially the most dangerous point of cruising. 

Impaired Visibility 

WTien the subject of impaired or restricted vis¬ 
ibility is brought up, most boatmen immediately 
think of fog. While it is true that fog is the most 
common impairment to visibility, other conditions 
such as heavy rain, sleet, hail and snow also fall with¬ 
in this category. The techniques for cruising in im- 



3-25 Pitchpoling 

paired visibility are common to all of these con¬ 
ditions. For convenience of the author (if for no 
better reason), we will include all of the foregoing 
conditions under the general term “fog.” Con¬ 
sequently, when we consider fog, we will be in- 
ferentially including heavy rain, sleet, hail and snow. 
On second thought, and in deference to our modern 
civilization with its effects on our atmosphere, we 
will also include “heavy smog” in our general classi¬ 
fication of “fog.” 

The first and most obvious rule for safe boat oper¬ 
ation in conditions of impaired visibility is not to go 
out on the water in the first place. If it’s too foggy 
to see, it follows that it is too foggy to cruise. Fog 
has a habit of burning off eventually and the boat¬ 
man is well advised to be patient until the visibility 
improves a bit. The inexperienced boatman, caught 
out on the water when these conditions close in, will 
find himself in a whole new world. If it’s his first 
time in a real “pea soup” fog, he will find himself 
struggling mightily with the temptation to panic. 

Even if the fog closes in rapidly, the impending 
condition can generally be observed for a short time 
beforehand. This time should be employed in mak¬ 
ing an accurate determination of the vessel’s posi¬ 
tion. In the section on Plotting we will learn how 
to do this, but at this time we emphasize the need 
for determining a position as accurately as pos¬ 
sible. Also, if a cruise log has not been maintained 
up to this point, it is an excellent idea to start one 
now. If you don’t have a log book, the back of an 


50 






envelope or the back page of your engine manual 
will do. Record the compass heading, the speed (as 
accurately as possible) and the time. Unless you 
know where you were at the time the fog closed in, 
you will have absolutely no idea where you are at 
any subsequent time. Further, unless you know in 
what direction you are heading and how fast (or 
slow) you are cruising, you will have absolutely no 
idea where you are going or when you might get 
there. 

Today, many vessels are equipped with radar. Al¬ 
most all eommereial vessels and many pleasure eraft 
now have this equipment. The owner of a boat not 
equipped with radar ean increase his own margin of 
safety in fog by rigging a radar reflector as high as 
possible above the hull. A radar leflector is made of 
thin light-weight metal sheets or fine-mesh metal 
screen arranged in three mutually perpendicular 
planes. These reflectors can be purchased commer¬ 
cially or they can be homemade. They are usually 
constructed so they can be folded flat for easy stor¬ 
age. If the area of each plane is only two feet square 
the device will reflect a radar image which is com¬ 
parable to that of a medium sized steel vessel. By 
placing the radar reflector as high as possible on a 
mast or in the rigging, vessels equipped with radar 
will be able to detect the presence of your boat in 
the fog. This greatly increases your margin of safety. 

With your position determined and the log en¬ 
tered you are as ready for the fog as you will ever 
be. As soon as things close in, slow down. Your 
speed will be determined by the visible distance. 
The law requires that you be able to stop in not 
more than one half of your visible distance. In 
theor}', if all fogbound vessels could stop in half 
of their distance of visibility, there would be no 
collisions in fog. For instance, if the visibility were 
500 feet, and two vessels on a collision course were 
to sight each other at 500 feet, each would be able 
to stop in less than 250 feet. Granted, the vessels 
would come precariously close—but they would not 
collide! 

Regardless of weather conditions, the law requires 
that you maintain an efficient watch at all times 
when you are underway. This becomes more impor¬ 
tant than ever in a fog. A lookout should be posted 
on the bow, or as far forward as possible. The bow 
lookout should be as far removed from the engine 
noise as possible so that he will be able to 


hear other sounds around him. Since the fog has 
deprived all hands from the use of their eyes in the 
navigation of the vessel, great dependence must be 
placed on the use of their ears. In extreme cases, 
it will become necessary to stop the engine fre¬ 
quently to afford all hands a series of silent listen¬ 
ing periods. 

It might be well to mention that the behavior of 
sound travelling through fog is most deceptive and 
unpredictable. In heavy fog, sound has been known 
to travel long distances and “skip” large areas in the 
process. A bell or horn, for instance, has been heard 
clearly a mile away and not heard at all at a distance 
of 100 yards. Further, when the sound is heard, it 
can often be interpreted as coming from more than 
one direction. If the sound is faint, it could appear 
to come successively from all points of the compass. 
To compound this even further, our ears are not di¬ 
rectionally oriented. Whether we realize it or not, 
the average human being has grown accustomed to 
depending on his eyes as an aid to determine the di¬ 
rection from which a sound is coming. Those of 
you who do not believe this, are invited to try a 
simple experiment. Stand upright and close your 
eyes tightly. (Better still, put on a blindfold, since 
this will keep you from peeking.) Ask someone to 
snap a pair of coins directly in front of you or di¬ 
rectly behind you. Have him do this a few times, 
both front and back. You will discover, to your 
surprise, that you will not be able to tell with cer¬ 
tainty whether the sound was coming from in 
front or from behind. And so it is in fog—you must 
depend on your ears and your ears are not very 
dependable. However, there are several ways of aid¬ 
ing the directional ability of your ears. One way is 
to cup your hands behind both ears and then turn 
your head until the sound is loudest. You are then 
looking in the direction of the sound. Another way 
is to place the small end of a megaphone up to 
one ear, plug the other ear and turn your head 
until the sound is loudest. The sound is then com¬ 
ing from the direction the megaphone is pointing. 

According to law, you must sound proper fog 
signals on the whistle. This becomes quite an 
accomplishment if you don’t have a whistle. Vessels 
under 16 feet must sound fog signals even though 
the law does not specify that a whistle must be 
carried aboard. Accordingly, if your boating 


51 


area is plagued by foggy seasons you should have a 
whistle (and a bell, as we shall see later) even if 
your craft is less than 16 feet long. Your whistle 
signals warn others of your presence. Since all craft 
are similarly bound to sound fog signals, their sig¬ 
nals should warn you of their presence. Upon hear¬ 
ing the fog signal of another vessel, stop immedi¬ 
ately and do not start again until you have deter¬ 
mined to your full satisfaction that it is safe to 
proceed. Other sounds that may be heard are fog 
horns of sailboats, fog horns of lighthouses, bells, 
sirens, diagraphm horns, the sounds of breakers and 
other land sounds. Identification of the sound is 
important as it could possibly be related to an ob¬ 
ject found on your chart. For instance, a boatman 
caught in a real “pea souper” off the coast of 
Southern California, exchanged whistle signals with 
the Los Angeles Lighthouse for over thirty minutes 
before he came to the realization that this was, in 
fact, a lighthouse and not another vessel! 

Depending on the depth of the water and the con¬ 
figuration of the shore, an anchor could be lowered 
from the bow and allowed to hang straight down 
with sufficient cable out to engage the bottom be¬ 
fore the boat runs up on the shore. If you have a 
radio direction finder aboard and if you have be¬ 
come proficient in its use (it’s too late to learn 
now), it can be of great help in determining your 
position and in “homing in” on the radio signal. 
A word of caution to those using this “homing in” 
technique. Be sure to stop before you arrive at the 
transmitter. Many radio beacons are situated on the 
ends of breakwaters or piers and many hapless boat¬ 
men have “homed in” on these aids with such pre¬ 
cision that they smashed right into the pier or 
ended up holed on a rocky breakwater. 

If possible, the best thing to do in a hea \7 fog 
is to get well clear of channels and shipping lanes 
and lower the anchor. When you anchor, you are 
not underway. However, you are required to sound 
proper anchor signals when anchored in a fog. An¬ 
chor signals are sounded on a bell. Here again, if 
your boat is less than 26 feet long, you are not 
legally required to have a bell aboard. In the chap¬ 
ter on Rules of the Road, you will study the whole 
subject of right-of-way, sound signals and fog sig¬ 
nals. These rules differ according to where you do 
your boating. Your instructor will advise you con¬ 


cerning which set of rules apply to your waters. 
However, the forgoing comments apply to all wa¬ 
ters since they are related strictly to the use of com¬ 
mon sense. 

Running Narrow Inlets 

No text on the art of seamanship and safety would 
be complete without a few words concerning the 
running of narrow inlets. Many rivers and coves are 
connected to the sea by narrow inlets. While no two 
inlets are alike, they have a lot in common. Shoaling 
is not gradual as it is along most coasts. At the 
mouth of most narrow inlets shoaling is quite rapid 
and it is usually confused by bottom irregularities 
known as sand bars with deeper pools in between. 

As the waves approach narrow inlets, their height 
increases rapidly and breakers form over the shallow¬ 
est areas, indicating the location and (to some ex¬ 
tent) the size of the sand bars. Further, these sand 
bars are constantly shifting, thus thwarting all at¬ 
tempts to define the limits of the navigable channel 
by the use of buoys. Every narrow inlet in existence 
has its own peculiarities and it is here more than 
anywhere else that local knowledge and intimate 
familiarity with existing conditions come into play. 

It is not possible to learn the techniques of run¬ 
ning narrow or breaking inlets from the printed 
page. Anyone who has ever had the experience of 
shooting a “hair raiser” will agree with this state¬ 
ment. Narrow inlets come in all shapes and sizes. 
Some are reserved only for experts even under the 
best of conditions. Others present only minimum 
difficulty at best and require a high degree of skill 
only under the worst of sea conditions. In all nar¬ 
row inlets, the water is confused and irregular and 
no prudent boatman would attempt his first run in 
an unfamiliar inlet without having a “native” 
aboard to point out known hazards and indicate 
the areas where the safe channel could most prob¬ 
ably be found. 

One point to remember when contemplating run¬ 
ning a narrow inlet is that you may be required to 
use bursts of high power to maintain the proper at¬ 
titude in relation to the seas. This would automatic¬ 
ally rule out sailboats (even sailing auxiliaries) and 
low powered displacement-hull power craft. These 
types of vessels do not have the necessary quick re- 


52 


sponse to run anything but the mildest form of nar¬ 
row inlet. 

While standing off the inlet, prepare a sea anchor 
or drogue. Use a heavy line for the drogue and be 
certain that a smaller trip line is attached to the nar¬ 
row opening. Having determined (by observation) 
the cadence of the waves, select a small one and run 
up onto its back surface. The drogue is streamed 
astern by the trip line, ready for use. As the wave 
moves forward you must maintain your position ex¬ 
actly on the back of the wave. Set the drogue by 
letting out the trip line if you feel the boat is moving 
toward the crest of the wave. Use bursts of high 
power if you feel the boat sliding backward into the 
trough. Maintain your position on the wave until it 
eventually breaks ahead of your boat. Trip the 
drogue (if it is still set) and apply full power as you 
enter the turbulent water. As calmer water is reach¬ 
ed, slow down and haul in the drogue by the trip line. 


Do not attempt to tow a dinghy astern of your 
boat while entering a breaking inlet. It can only 
cause trouble. If possible, the dinghy should be 
brought aboard and secured bottom up. If this is 
not possible it might be better to abandon the 
dinghy and attempt to retrieve it later. 

Conclusion 

In conclusion, use good common sense when it 
comes to deciding whether or not you should use 
your boat when the wind and sea are increasing in 
velocity and size. If there is the least doubt in your 
mind, decide against it. Strangely enough, the more 
a man goes to sea, the greater respect he has for it. 
Don’t tempt fate. Don’t take chances on becoming 
another statistic. The sea has always seemed myster¬ 
ious. Let the professional seaman seek out its mys¬ 
teries—he is far better equipped for it. 


53 



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CHAPTER 4 


Legal Requirements 


Introduction 

The Congress of The United States has recog¬ 
nized the need for safety in boating and has en¬ 
acted into law certain basic requirements for motor- 
boats. In addition, there are numerous state and 
local regulations which amplify the federal require¬ 
ments. As in all other areas of our society, ignor¬ 
ance of the navigation laws does not exempt you 
from prosecution if you violate them. You must 
become aware of your responsibilities on the water 
and equip your craft according to federal and state 
requirements. 

This chapter deals with federal laws and regula¬ 
tions applicable to boats and boatmen. State and 
local requirements vary so much across the country 
that it is impossible to cover them in this chapter. 
You can obtain information concerning these from 
the nearest state or local boating law enforcement 
agency. 

Numbering of Vessels 

boats propelled by machinery and operated on 
the navigable waters of the United States must be 
numbered, regardless of length and whether fitted 
with inboard or outboard engines. 

This numbering requirement excludes boats used 
exclusively for racing and vessels documented as 
yachts. Other exceptions include public vessels, state 
and municipal vessels and ships’ lifeboats. Vessels 
that have a valid temporary certificate may operate 
without displaying the registration number on 
the bow while awaiting issuance of a permanent 
certificate. 

In general, the term ‘‘navigable waters of the 
United States” refers to waters which provide a 


“road” for transportation between two or more 
states or to the sea. 

Under the Federal Boating Act of 1958, most 
states have assumed this numbering function. Their 
systems are compatible with the federal system. If 
you intend to operate principally on waters in a state 
which has received federal approval of its number¬ 
ing system you must determine that particular 
state’s requirements. The state has jurisdiction and 
may, for example, require all pleasure craft, 
regardless of type of waters, to be numbered. For 
information regarding individual states with ap¬ 
proved systems, consult your marine dealer, the 
Coast Guard, the Coast Guard Auxiliary, or the 
State Boating Law Administration. 

If your boat must be numbered, the place of ap¬ 
plication depends upon the waters of principal use. 
Where these waters are within a state that has a 
federally approved numbering system, application 
is made in accordance with that state’s instructions. 

When a boat is used principally on ocean or gulf 
waters, the place where it is normally moored 
becomes the determining factor in where the 
application is made. If the state where the boat is 
moored has a federally approved system, applica¬ 
tion is made to that state. When the state system has 
not been federally approved, application is made to 
the Commandant (G-BD), U.S. Coast Guard, 
Washington, D.C. 20590. However, most states 
have enacted numbering laws approved by the 
federal government. 

The number assigned by the certificate is to be 
painted on or attached to both bows of the vessel 
and no other number is to be displayed in this area. 
Numbers are to read from left to right, to be of 
block character, of contrasting color to the back- 


55 


PROPER DISPLAY 



WN-1234-ZZ} 


CHARACTERS 


BLOCK LETTERS 

NOT LESS 

THAN 3 INCHES HIGH 


COLOR 


MUST BE OF A COLOR 
CONTRASTING TO THE 
BACKGROUND 


SPACING 


HYPHEN OR EQUIVALENT 
SPACE BETWEEN 3 PARTS 
OF YOUR NUMBER 


PLACEMENT 
ON BOAT 


PAINTED OR ATTACHED 
TO EACH SIDE OF BOW 



ALWAYS READING 
LEFT TO RIGHT. 


4-1 Proper Number Placement 


ground and not less than three inches in height. 
Between the prefix, the numerals, and the suffix, 
there must be a hyphen or space equal to any letter 
except “I” or “1.” 

The number shall not be placed on the obscured 
underside of a flared bow where the angle is such 
that the number cannot be easily read. When the 
vessel configuration is such that the number cannot 
be so placed on the bow, it will be placed on the 
forward half of the hull or on the permanent super¬ 
structure located on the forward half of the hull, as 
nearly vertical as possible, and where easily ob¬ 
served. If the above will not provide ready identifi¬ 
cation, the number may be mounted on a bracket 
or fixture firmly attached to the forward half of the 
vessel. 

Sales and Transfers 

Boat numbers and Certificates of Number are not 
transferable from person to person, nor from boat 
to boat. This number stays with the boat unless the 


state of principal use is changed. When numbered 
by the Coast Guard, a new application with a $6.00 
fee must be filed by each owner for every boat 
(except dealers) with the Commandant (G-BD), 
U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C. 20590. 

Documenting of Vessels 

Under navigation laws administered by the U. S. 
Coast Guard, a vessel of 5 net tons or over owned 
by a citizen of the United States and used exclu¬ 
sively for pleasure may be documented as a yacht. 

The principal privileges are: 

(a) Authority to fly the yacht ensign. 

(b) Provision for recording and retaining copies 
of mortgages, bills of sale, and other instru¬ 
ments of title with the U. S. Coast Guard. 
Mortgages which are so recorded may, upon 
compliance with the applicable require¬ 
ments, become preferred mortgages, thus 
giving additional security to the mortgagee. 


56 















































A documented yacht must display her name and 
hailing port on some conspicuous portion of the 
hull, usually the stern, and her official number and 
net tonnage must be carved or otherwise perma¬ 
nently marked on her main beam. 

Sales to Aliens 

Under Federal law, the sale, transfer, mortgage, 
or lease by a U. S. citizen to an alien of a vessel of 
more than 65 feet in length and/or designed for 
propulsion by an engine or engines totalling more 
than 600 horsepower, must be specifically approved 
by the Maritime Administration. 

The same stipulation applies to the sale, transfer, 
mortgage, or lease (to an alien) of any vessel 
presently documented or last documented in the 
United States, regardless of its length or specified 
horsepower. 

Specific advance approval by the Maritime Ad¬ 
ministration is also necessary for the sale of any 
vessel to a citizen or resident of certain Communist- 
controlled countries. 


For approvals or further information, communi¬ 
cate with the Foreign Transfer Branch, Office of 
Ship Operations, Maritime Administration, Wash¬ 
ington, D. C. 20235. 


Length of Motorboats 

The federal government has, through the Motor- 
boat Act of 1940, as amended, set forth minimum 
equipment for different lengths of boat. Before you 
can determine your boat’s needs to conform with the 
requirements of federal law, you first have to 
accurately determine the length of the boat. 
“Motorboat” means any vessel 65 feet in length or 
less which is propelled by steam. The word “motor- 
boat,” also means a boat temporarily or permanent¬ 
ly equipped with a motor and, although few and far 
between, a boat propelled by steam. 

For determining “official length”, the length is 
measured from end to end over the deck excluding 
sheer. This means a straight line measurement of the 



4-2 Measuring the Boat 

57 








overall length from the foremost part of the vessel to 
the aftermost part of the vessel, measured parallel to 
the centerline. Bow sprits, bumpkins, rudders, 
outboard motor brackets, and similar fittings or 
attachments are not to be included in the measure¬ 
ment. Length is stated in feet and inches. 

After determining your boat’s length, the next 
step is to equip it with at least the minimum 
requirements by the law. It is important to 
remember that this equipment is the minimum 
required to be on board your boat to conform with 
federal law. 

All motorboats are required to carry up to six 
different items of equipment: fire extinguishers, 
personal flotation devices, flame arrestors, ventila¬ 
tion devices, bells, and whistles. 


Lights 

By day, a vessel's course, change of course or pro¬ 
gress on her course is fairly obvious. By night, prac¬ 
tically nothing can be determined about another 
vessel unless the vessel is lighted according to the 
rules. As with the rules for maneuvering, the pro¬ 
visions for lights vary according to the place, the 
size of the vessel and her use. Lights for vessels will 
be discussed in Chapter V, Rules of the Road. 

Fire Extinguishers 

Fire extinguishers are classified by letter and ro¬ 
man numeral according to their size and the type 
of fire they are designed to put out. The letter indi¬ 
cates the type of fire: “A” for combustible solids; 


4-3 Equipment for boats less than 16 feet in length. 



58 



4-4 Equipment for boats 16 feet to less than 26 feet in length. 



4-5 Equipment for boats 26 feet to less than 40 feet in length. 


59 





4-6 Equipment for boats 40 feet to not more than 65 feet in length. 


“B” for flammable and combustible liquids; “C" 
for electrical fires and “D” for combustible metals. 
Motorboats are required to have either hand port¬ 
able or semi-portable units capable of extinguish¬ 
ing fires involving flammable liquids and grease 
(class “B” tires). The table below makes it easy to 
understand the classifications you will use: 


Classification Carbon Dry 

(type —size) Foam Dioxide Chemical Freon 

B-I . Wa gals. 4 lbs. 2 lbs. 2Vi lbs. 

B-II . 2Vi gals. 15 lbs. 10 lbs. - 

B-III . 12 gals. 35 lbs. 20 lbs. - 


To meet equipment requirements, portable fire 
extinguishers must be Coast Guard approved. Port¬ 
able fire extinguishers bearing the “Marine Type" 
label of Underwriters’ Laboratories Inc., are ap¬ 
proved for use on motorboats. Example: “Marine 
Type, USCG Type B, Size 1, Approval No. 160. 
028/EX. . . 


For current listings of marine type portable fire 
extinguishers, consult the Fire Protection Equip¬ 
ment List published by the Underwriters’ Labora¬ 
tories, Inc., 207 East Ohio Street, Chicago, Illinois. 

Most fire extinguishers manufactured prior to 
1 January 1965, do not have the Coast Guard ap¬ 
proval number on the nameplate. When a fire ex¬ 
tinguisher does not show the Coast Guard approval 
number, the nameplate should be checked against 
the listing in CG-190, Equipment Lists at Coast 
Guard Marine Inspection Offices, or Underwriters’ 
Laboratories, Inc., Fire Protection Equipment List. 
To be acceptable by the Coast Guard for use, they 
must be in good and serviceable condition. 

If there is doubt about the approval status of any 
fire extinguisher, you should contact the nearest 
Coast Guard Marine Inspection Office. 


60 






You should make frequent checks to be sure your 
extinguishers are in their proper stowage brackets 
and undamaged. Cracked or broken hose should be 
replaced and nozzles should be kept free of obstruc¬ 
tions. Extinguishers having pressure gauges should 
show pressure within the designated limits. Locking 
pins and sealing wires should be checked to assure 
that the extinguisher has not been used since last 
recharge. Extinguishers should never be tried merely 
to see if they are in proper operating condition be¬ 
cause in many cases the valves will not properly re¬ 
seat, thereby resulting in a gradual discharge. A 
discharged extinguisher should be recharged at the 
first opportunity. 



4-7 Typical Fire Extinguishers 


The following tests and inspections should be 
made by qualified persons: 

Foam 

Once a year discharge the extinguisher. Clean 
the hose and inside of the extinguisher thoroughly. 
Recharge and attach a tag indicating the date of 
servicing. 

Carbon Dioxide or Freon 

Twice a year weigh the cylinder and recharge if 
the weight loss exceeds 10% of the weight of the 
charge. Inspect hose and nozzle to be sure they are 
clear. Inspect the lead seals on the operating levers 
to insure they are not broken. Attach a tag to in¬ 
dicate when the extinguisher was serviced or in¬ 
spected. 

Dry Chemical 

With visual pressure indicator 
Regularly check the pressure indicator to insure 
the extinguisher has the proper amount of pressure. 
Occasionally invert the extinguisher and shake it to 
insure that the powder has not packed and caked 
due to vibration. Check the nozzle to insure that 


there is no powder in it; if there is, weigh the ex¬ 
tinguisher to insure that it has a full charge. Check 
the seals to insure that they are intact. 

Without indicator 

Once every six months the extinguisher must be 
taken ashore to be checked and weighed. If the 
weight is Ya ounce less than that stamped on the 
container it must be serviced. The seals indicating 
that it has not been tampered with must be intact. 
If there is any indication of tampering or leakage 
such as powder in the nozzle, the extinguisher must 
be serviced. All servicing must be indicated by the 
servicing station on an attached tag. 

Fire Extinguisher Requirements 

If, owing to the nature of its construction, a 
boat will tend to trap explosive vapors, it is re¬ 
quired to carry a fire extinguisher. There is in¬ 
creased possibly of explosion if any of the below 
listed conditions exist. Motorboats less than 26 feet 
in length having one or more of these areas are 
required to carry a fire extinguisher. 

1. Closed compartments under thwarts and seats 
wherein portable tanks may be stored. 

2. Double bottoms not sealed to the hull or 
which are not completely filled with flotation 
material. 

3. Closed living spaces. 

4. Closed stowage compartments in which com¬ 
bustible or flammable materials are stowed. 

5. Permanently installed fuel tanks. 

The conditions numbered below do not, by them¬ 
selves, require fire extinguishers on motorboats less 
than 26 feet in length: 

1. Bait wells. 

2. Glove compartments. 

3. Buoyant flotation material. 

4. Open slatted flooring. 

5. Ice chests. 

All motorboats 26 feet or greater, and those 
motorboats less than 26 feet which are required to 
be equipped with fire extinguishers, must be 
equipped according to the following table: 


61 


















MINIMUM NUMBER OF 

HAND PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS REQUIRED 


U S. COAST GUARD CAPACITY INFORMATION 


Fixed fire extinguishing 
system in machinery space 

None 

None 

1 B-1 

2 B-I or 1 B-II 


A hull identification number must be displayed 
on all recreation boats the construction of which 
began after October 31, 1972. The number consists 
of 12 characters no less than one-fourth of an inch in 
height and must be affixed to the outboard side of 
the transom or, if there is no transom, to the 
outermost starboard side at the end of the hull that 
bears the rudder or other steering mechanism. The 
hull identification number must be affixed above 
the waterline of the boat in such a way that 
alteration, removal, or replacement would be ob¬ 
vious and evident. Additional characters may be 
displayed after the hull identification number if they 
are separated from the hull identification number by 
a hyphen. 

ABC456781 272 

I_II_II_I 

/ 

MANUFACTURERS HULL SERIAL DATE OF 

I.D. CODE NUMBER CERTIFICATION 

ABC45678M73E 

I_II_II_I 

/ / \ 

MANUFACTURERS HULL SERIAL OPTIONAL METHOD 

I.D. CODE NUMBER DATE OF CERTIFICATION 

4-8 Hull Identification Number 



Length of vessel 

Less than 16' 

16' to less than 26' 
26' to less than 40' 
40'through 65' 


No fixed system 
in machinery space 

1 B-I 

1 B-1 

2 B-1 or 1 B-Il 

3 B-1 or I B-II 
and I B-1 


Hull Identification Number 



4-9 Capacity Plate for Outboards 



4-10 Capacity Plate for Inboards, etc. 


Manufacturer Certification of Compliance 

A certification of compliance label must be 
affixed to all monohull boats less than 20 feet in 
length except sailboats, canoes, kayaks, and in¬ 
flatable boats construction of which began after 31 
October 1972. Each label must contain (I) the name 
and address of the manufacturer who certifies the 
boat or associated equipment and (2) the words 
“This (‘Boat’ or ‘Equipment’) complies with U.S. 
Coast Guard Safety Standards in effect on the Date 
of Certification. Letters and numbers must be no 
less than one-eighth of an inch in height. The 
certification of compliance label may be affixed at 
any easily accessible location on the boat or 
associated equipment. This label may, at the 
manufacturer’s option, be combined with the 
capacity plate. 


Display of Capacity information 

All monohull recreational boats less than 20 feet 
in length the construction of which began after 
October 31, 1972, except sailboats, canoes, kayaks, 
and inflatable boats, must have a legible capacity 
marking permanently displayed where it is clearly 
visible to the operator when he is getting the boat 
underway. The information required to be marked 
must be displayed in the following manner: 


THIS BOAT COMPLIES WITH U.S. COAST GUARD 
SAFETY STANDARDS IN EFFECT ON THE DATE OF 
CERTIFICATION 


MODEL NO. 


SERIAL NO. 


4-11 Certificate of Compliance 


62 











U.S. COAST GUARD CAPACITY INFORMATION 


MAXIMUM HORSE POWER 
MAXIMUM PERSONS CAPACITY (POUNOS) 
MAXIMUM WEIGHT CAPACITY 

PERSONS MOTOR & GEAR (POUNDS) 


THIS BOAT COMPLIES WITH U.S. COAST GUARD 
SAFETY STANDARDS IN EFFECT ON THE DATE OF 
CERTIFICATION 


MODEL NO. I 


SERIAL NO. 


MFD. BY 


4-12 Combination Capacity Plate and 
Certificate of Compliance 


Personal Flotation Devices 

As of 1 October 1973, a new Federal personal 
flotation device (PFD) regulation became effective. 
The new law requires that (1) all recreational boats 
less than sixteen (16) feet in length, including 
sailboats and rowboats, and all kayaks and canoes, 
carry at least one Type I, II, III, or IV PFD for 
each person on board, and (2) all recreational boats 
sixteen (16) feet or over in length, including 
sailboats and rowboats, carry at least one Type I, 
II, or III (wearable) PFD for each person on board 
and one Type IV (throwable) PFD in each boat. 

The new regulation defines the various types of 
PFD’s as follows: 

Type I - A Type I PFD is a Coast Guard ap¬ 
proved device designed to turn an un¬ 
conscious person in the water from a 
face downward position to a vertical or 
slightly backward position, and to have 
more than 20 pounds of buoyancy. 
This is the familiar collar-type life¬ 
jacket, bulky and less wearable than 
other PFD types, but designed to keep 
the wearer afloat for extended periods 
of time in rough water. Type I PFD’s 
are recommended for off-shore cruising. 
They are acceptable for all size boats. 

Type II - A Type II PFD is a Coast Guard 
approved device designed to turn an 
unconscious person in the water from a 


face downward position to a vertical or 
slightly backward position, and to have 
at least 15.5 pounds of buoyancy. This 
is a more wearable device than the Type 
I and is recommended for closer, in¬ 
shore cruising. Type II PFD’s are also 
acceptable for all size boats. 

Type III — A Type III PFD is a Coast Guard 
approved device designed to keep a 
conscious person in a vertical or slightly 
backward position. Like the Type II 
PFD, Type III must have at least 15.5 
pounds of buoyancy. However, it has a 
lesser turning ability than either Type I 
or Type II. Type III PFD’s are recom¬ 
mended for in-water sports, or on lakes, 
impoundments, and close in-shore 
operation. They are acceptable for all 
size boats. 

Type IV — A Type IV PFD is a Coast Guard 
approved device designed to be thrown 
to a person in the water and not worn. 
It must have at least 16.5 pounds of 
buoyancy. Type IV PFD’s are accept¬ 
able for boats less than 16 feet in length 
and canoes and kayaks, and at least one 
Type IV PFD is required for boats 16 
feet and over in length. 

All Coast Guard approved personal flotation 
devices bear markings indicating the manufacturer, 
the type, and an approval number. However, since 
the above type designations were adopted in 1973, 


63 





there are many kinds of Coast Guard approved 
PFD’s in existence which are not marked as “Type 
I, II, III, or IV.” The following “conversion” table 
gives equivalent “type” information for previously 
existing devices. 

Number on Devices Marked are [Equivalent to 

Label 

160,002 Life preserver.Performance Type I personal flotation device 

160,003 Life preserver.Performanc-e Type I personal flotation device 

160,004 Life preserver.Performance Type I personal flotation device 

160,005 Life preserver.Performance Type I personal flotation device 

160,009 King life buoy.Performance Type IV personal flotation device 

160,047 Buoyant vest.Performance Type II personal flotation device 

160,048 Buoyant cushion Performance Type IV personal flotation device 

160,049 Buoyant cushion.Performance Type IV personal flotation device 

160,050 Ring life buoy.Performance Type IV personal flotation device 

160,052 Buoyant vest.Performance Type II personal flotation device 

160,055 Life preserver.Performance Type I personal flotation device 

160,060 Buoyant vest.Performance Type II personal flotation device 

160,064 Special purpose water ,, , A device intended to be worn may be equiva- 
safety buoyant lent to Type II or Type III. A device that is 

devices equivalent to Type III is marked “Type III 

Device - may not turn unconscious wearer." 
A device intended to be grasped is equiva¬ 
lent to Type IV. 

All personal flotation devices can have excellent 
flotation materials, be expertly manufactured and 
be in serviceable condition without being a good 
personal flotation device. Why? The proper use of 
any personal flotation device requires the wearer to 
know how it will perform. The only way to gain 
this knowledge is through personal experience. 
Every person going out on the water in a boat 
should first understand how to properly fit and 
wear the personal flotation device intended for his 
use. He should then understand how the device will 
react when the wearer and device are in the water. 
Only then can he be sure he and the device are 
ready for an emergency which would cause him to 
leave the boat. Children, especially, require this 
practice. Child size devices are acceptable only for 
persons weighing less than 90 pounds. 

Life Preservers (Type I PFDs) 

Life preservers will last for many years if they 
are given reasonable care. They should be dried 
thoroughly before being put away and should be 
stowed in a dry, well-ventilated place. Do not stow 
in the bottom of lockers or deck storage boxes where 
moisture might accumulate. Frequent airing and 
drying in the sun is also recommended. Life pre¬ 
servers should not be tossed about haphazardly, 
used as fenders or cushions, or otherwise roughly 
treated. 

Life preservers are most often of the kapok type, 
although buoyant fibrous glass, cork, balsa wood, 
and unicellular plastic foam are used. They are 


either jacket or bib design. 

The jacket type is constructed with pads of 
buoyant materials inserted in a cloth covering. This 
covering is fitted with the necessary straps and ties. 

Bib type life preservers are constructed of un¬ 
icellular plastic foam with a vinyl-dip surface or 
cloth cover. They are fitted with an adjustable strap. 
Adult and child sizes are available. All Coast Guard 
approved life preservers (Type I) are required to be 
Indian Orange colored. 

The jacket type life preserver should be put on 
the same as a coat with all ties and fasteners secured 
to obtain a snug fit. When the bib type is worn the 
body strap should be drawn snugly. 

All life preservers are required to be ready for use 
and readily accessible. This means they should be 
ready to be worn without adjustments as well as 
being within reach. The straps should be adjusted 
for the person for whom it is intended and the fast¬ 
eners unhooked to eliminate that step when time is 
most critical. 



4-13 Type I Personal Flotation Device 

When underway in a small open boat, life pre¬ 
servers should be worn by children and non-swim¬ 
mers. When rough weather is encountered on any 
type of boat, or when in hazardous waters, life pre¬ 
servers should be worn by everyone. As a matter of 
good seamanship and common sense, all unsatis¬ 
factory lifesaving equipment should be left ashore. 
Its replacement should be Coast Guard approved 
equipment. An emergency is no time to conduct 
an inspection to determine whether or not the 
equipment is serviceable. 


64 

















Buoyant Vests (Type II PFDs) 

Coast Guard approved buoyant vests are manu¬ 
factured in several designs. They can be constructed 
of pads of kapok, fibrous glass or unicellular plastic 
with cloth covering, with straps and ties attached. 
The kapok and fibrous glass pads are enclosed in 
plastic bags. Other models of buoyant vests are 
made of unicellular plastic foam which has a vinyl- 
dip coating. They are made in three sizes: adidt, 
child (medium) and child (small), and may be 
any color. 

Buoyant vests are identified by a Coast Guard 
approval number and the model number which are 
contained on a label attached to the vest. Vests 
must be in good and serviceable condition. 

As with life preservers, buoyant vests have a vari¬ 
ety of adjustable straps which should be adjusted 
to fit before leaving the mooring. Be sure to make 
children’s adjustments for proper fit, too. Vests 
should be worn snugly with all ties and fasteners 



4-14 Type II Personal Flotation Device 



pulled tight and worn by children and non-swim¬ 
mers when underway in small boats or open con¬ 
struction type craft. They should be dried thorough¬ 
ly before being put away, and when stowed on board 
should be in a readily accessible location which is 
dry, cool, and well ventilated. Buoyant vests should 
not be tossed about haphazardly, used as fenders or 
cushions, or otherwise roughly treated. 

Buoyant Cushions (Type IV PFDs) 

Buoyant cushions approved by the Coast Guard 
contain kapok, fibrous glass or unicellular plastic 
foam, come in a variety of sizes and shapes, may be 
any color, and are fitted with grab straps. Some uni¬ 
cellular plastic foam buoyant cushions are vinyl-dip 
coated. 

Buoyant cushions are generally more readily ac¬ 
cessible since they are sometimes used as seat cush¬ 
ions. However, the kapok or fibrous glass cushions 
used as seats become unserviceable rather rapidly 
because the inner plastic envelope may be punc¬ 
tured. 

Cushions are usually available in time of emer¬ 
gency. However, they are difficult to hang on to in 
the water and do not afford as great a degree of 
protection as a life preserver or buoyant vest. For 
this reason, buoyant cushions are not recommended 
for use by children or non-swimmers. The straps on 
buoyant cushions are put there primarily for hold¬ 
ing-on purposes. However, they may also be used 
in throwing the cushion. Cushions should never 



4-16 Type IV PFD (Buoyant Cushion) 

be worn on a person’s back since this tends to force 
the wearer’s face down in the water. 

Approved buoyant cushions are marked on the 
side (gusset), showing the Coast Guard approval 
number and other information concerning the cush¬ 
ion and its use. 


4-15 Type III Personal Flotation Device 


65 




















Ming Life Buoys (Type IV PFDs) 

These personal flotation devices can be made of 
cork, balsa wood or unicellular plastic foam, and 
are available in 30, 24, and 20-inch sizes. Their 
covering is either canvas or specially-surfaced plas¬ 
tic foam. All buoys are fitted with a grab line and 
may be colored either white or orange. 

Approximately 60 feet of line should be attached 
to the grab rope on the ring buoy. When throwing 
a ring buoy, care should be taken not to hit the per¬ 
son in the water. Ring buoys should be stowed in 
braekets topside, readily aeeessible for emergencies. 



4-17 Type IV PFD (Ring Buoy) 

Cork and balsa wood ring buoys must bear two 
markings, the manufacturer’s stamp and the Coast 
Guard inspector s stamp. Plastic foam ring buoys 
bear only one marking, a nameplate attached to the 
buoy. 

Special Purpose Water Safety Buoyant Devices 

(May be Type Ml PFD's) 

Approved special purpose water safety buoyant 
devices are manufactured in many designs depend¬ 
ing on the intended special purpose. These include 
water ski jump vests, hunters’ vests, motorboat rac¬ 
ing vests, flotation jackets, and others. Additional 
strength is added where needed for the intended 
purpose of the device. 

The devices are made for either wearing or 
grasping. Wearing devices are available in adult and 
child sizes. Their markings include the Coast Guard 
approval Number E25/160.064/ ... as well as the 
special purpose for which the device is intended, 
instructions for use and maintenance, and other 
necessary information. The devices intended for 
grasping also are marked with the wording: “Warn¬ 
ing—Do not wear on Back. ” 


Ventilation Systems 

No foolproof ventilation system has been devel¬ 
oped. The efficiency of various shaped cowls and 
ducts, the location of system components, the ca¬ 
pacity of blowers, and the choice of materials are 
all related to safety. There is no such thing as a 
ventilation system ‘'approved” by the Coast Guard. 
There has been, however, a great deal of study and 
thought, some testing, and years of experience upon 
which to form recommendations. These lead to the 
conclusion that, as a minimum, fresh air should be 
ducted into each engine and fuel tank compartment 
and dangerous fumes ducted out of the vessel. To 
create a flow through the ducting system, at least 
when underway or when there is a wind, cowls 
(scoops) or other fittings of equivalent effective¬ 
ness are needed on all ducts. A wind-actuated 
rotary exhauster or mechanical blower is considered 
equivalent and preferred to a cowl on the exhaust 
duct. To scavenge gases from ventilated spaces and 
avoid undesirable turbulance within the spaces, at 
least one inlet duct must be installed to extend to a 
point at least midway to the bilge, or at least below 
the level of the carburetor air intake. At least one 
exhaust duct must extend from the open atmos¬ 
phere to the lower portion of the bilge. Ducts 
should not be installed so low in the bilge that they 
may become obstructed by normal accumulation of 
bilge water. 


Open Boats 

The use of gasoline in boats will always present 
a safety hazard because the vapors are heavier than 
air and may find their way into the bilges from 
which there is no escape except through the ventila¬ 
tion systems. In an open boat these vapors may be 
dissipated through the scouring effect of exposure 
to the open atmosphere. Open boats are, therefore, 
exempted from the above ventilation requirements. 

A// three of the following conditions should be 
met in order to consider a boat “open”; 

1. Engine and fuel tank compartments shall have 
as a minimum 15 square inches of open area 
directly exposed to the atmosphere for each 
cubic foot of net compartment volume. 


66 












2. There must be no long or narrow unventilated 
spaees aeeessible from sueh compartments in 
which a flame could propagate. 

3. Long, narrow compartments (such as side pan¬ 
els), if joining engine or fuel compartments 
and not serving as ducts thereto, shall have at 
least 15 square inches of open area per cubic 
foot provided by frequent openings along the 
full length of the compartment formed. 


Technical Details 

Most boat owners, on learning that fires and ex¬ 
plosions of fuels cause more property damage in 
pleasure boating than any other type of accident, 
and run a close second to collisions in personal in¬ 
juries, are anxious to improve the ventilation system 
on their boats. They want to protect their families, 
friends and investments by installing a ventilation 
system that at least meets the safety standards rec¬ 
ommended by the boat building industry. To ac¬ 
complish this the following should be considered 
and installed if not present. 

Intake (Air Supply) 

There must be one or more intake ducts into each 
fuel and engine compartment, fitted with a cowl 
(scoop), extending from the open atmosphere to a 
level midway to the bilge (fuel compartment) or at 
least below the level of the carburetor (engine com¬ 
partment). 

Exhaust 

There must be one or more exhaust ducts from 
the Ipwer portion of the bilge of each fuel and en¬ 
gine compartment to the free atmosphere, fitted 
with a cowl or an equivalent such as a wind actu¬ 
ated rotary exhauster or a power exhaust blower. 

Ducting Materials 

For long life and safety, ducts should be con¬ 
structed of nonfcrrous, galvanized ferrous, or sturdy 
high temperature resistant nonmetallic materials, 
routed clear of and protected from contact with hot 
engine surfaces. 

Positioning of Cowls 

Normally, the intake cowl will face forward in an 


area of free underway airflow, and the exhaust cowl 
will face aft where a suction effect can be expected. 
They should be located with respect to each other 
so as to avoid the pick up of vapors while fueling. 

Carburetion Air 

Openings in engine compartment for entry of air 
to the carburetor are additional to the ventilation 
system requirements. 

Ducting Size 

There should be no constriction in the ducting 
system which is smaller than the minimum cross 
sectional area required for reasonable efficiency. 

Small Motorboats 

To determine the minimum cross sectional area 
of the air conduits (cowls and ducting) for motor- 
boats having small engine and/or fuel tank com¬ 
partments see table 1, which is based on net 
compartment volume. 

Cabin Cruisers and Larger Boats 
For most cabin cruisers and other large motor- 
boats, Table 2, which is based on the vessel's beam, 
is a practical guide for determining the minimum 
cross sectional area of the air conduits (ducts and 
cowls). 


TABLE I 

ONE INTAKE AND ONE TWO INTAKE AND TWO 

EXHAUST SYSTEM EXHAUST SYSTEMS 

Net 

Volume 
(cu. ft.) 

Minimum 
Inside 
Diameter 
for Each 
(inches) 

Area 
(sq. in.) 

M inimum 

Inside 

Diameter 
for Each 
(inches) 

Up to 8 

2 

3 


10 

2V4, 

4 


12 

2Vi 

5 


14 

2% 

6 


17 

3 

7 


20 

m 

8 


23 

3V4 

10 

2V4 

27 

334 

11 

3 

30 

4 

13 

3 

35 

4V4 

14 

3 

39 

4Vi 

16 

3 

43 

434 

19 

3 

48 

5 

20 

3 


NOTE: Determine gross compartment volume, then determine 
the volume of tanks, engine and other items in that 
compartment. The difference is the net compartment 
volume. 


67 






TABLE 2 

TWO INTAKE AND TWO EXHAUST SYSTEMS 


Vessel 

Beam 

(feet) 

Minimum Inside 
Diameter for 

Each Duct (inches) 

Area 

(square inches) 

7 

3 

7 

8 

31/4 

8 

9 

31/2 

9 

10 

3Vi 

10 

11 


11 

12 

4 

12 

IS 

41/4 

13 

14 

m 

14 

15 

4Vi 

15 

16 

4/2 

16 

17 

41/2 

17 

18 

5 

18 

19 

5 

19 


General Precautions 

Ventilation systems are not designed to remove 
vapors caused by breaks in fuel lines or leaking 
tanks. If gas odors are detected repairs are generally 
indicated. Prior to each starting of the engine, espec¬ 
ially on calm days and where a power exhaust system 
is not installed, the engine compartment should be 
opened to dissipate vapors which may be present. 
The smaller the compartment the quicker an ex¬ 
plosive mixture of gasoline vapors can be expected 
to develop. 

Play it Safe—Keep Your Boat Free of Explosive 

Vaporsl 

Note: Vessels which are intended for carrying 
more than six passengers for hire are subject to spec¬ 
ial regulations. Owners should contact the nearest 
Coast Guard Marine Inspection Office for inspec¬ 
tion requirements. 



UNDERSEAT FUEL COMPARTMENT 


4-18 Ventilation 


Example of Ventilation Arrangements 
On Small Motorboats 

Natural System 

The above features provide for ventilation with¬ 
out mechanical assistance. Efficiency is greatest 
when there is a breeze from forward of the beam, 
which will normally occur when underway or at 
anchor, and some of the time when moored. 
Although less efficient when the wind is abaft the 
beam, some scouring effect may even then be 
expected. 

Mechanical Blowers 

To provide a positive means of exhausting vapors 
when there is little or no movement of air (calm 
days) and especially before starting engines when 
the explosion risk is greatest, mechanical blowers 
are recommended for engine spaces. It is suggested 
that ducting separate from the natural ventilation 
system be installed. Exhaust blowers should be of 
the sealed or arcless type and, if located within the 
compartment being ventilated, be as high as pos¬ 
sible. Blower fan blades or impellers should be non¬ 
sparking and, if installed in the exhaust duct of the 
natural system, should not interfere with the func¬ 
tioning of the ducts as natural ventilators. Exterior 
terminations of power exhaust ducts may be fitted 
with louvered fittings instead of cowls. 

Backfire Flame Arrestors 



4-19 Backfire Flame Arrestor 

Gasoline engines (other than outboard engines) 
that have been installed since April 25 1940,‘must 
have an efficient means of backfire flame control. 
To be considered acceptable, a Coast Guard ap¬ 
proved backfire flame arrestor must be attached to 
the engine air intake by a flame-tight connection. 
A gasoline engine to be approved by the Coast 
Guard, must be equipped with an engine-air and 
fuel-induction system that prevents backfire flames 
from reaching the atmosphere outside the vessel 
in such manner as to endanger the vessel, persons 
aboard or nearby vessels or structures. 


68 











4-20 Whistle and Horns 


Whistle or Horn 

Whistle signals are required to be given by all 
boats under certain circumstances. Equipment re¬ 
quirements vary according to the length of the boat. 


Less than 16 feet 

16 feet to less 
than 26 feet 


26 feet to less 
than 40 feet 


No whistle required. 

Mouth, hand or power oper¬ 
ated, capable of producing a 
blast of 2 seconds or more 
duration and audible for a 
distance of at least Vi mile. 

Hand or power operated, 
capable of producing a blast 
of 2 seconds or more dura¬ 
tion and audible for a dis¬ 
tance of at least 1 mile. 


40 feet through Power operated, capable of 

65 feet producing a blast of 2 sec¬ 

onds or more duration and 
audible for a distance of at 
least 1 mile. 


Note that even though a boat less than 16 feet in 
length is not required to have a whistle on board, it 
still must give the proper whistle signals when 
needed. 



Bell 


4-21 Bell 


Bell signals are required when a vessel is at anchor 
under conditions of restricted visibility. All vessels 


26 feet or greater but not more than 65 feet in length 
are required to carry a bell on board. No specific size 
is stipulated but it must be capable of giving a clear, 
bell-like tone. Even though boats less than 26 feet in 
length need not have a bell aboard, this does not 
exempt them from the requirement to give the 
proper signals if the occasion arises. 


Your Responsibility os a Boatman 

You are responsible for any damage your boat 
may cause other craft or for any injuries suffered by 
your passengers or others. For instance, if you pass 
close to a cruiser at high speed and your wake rocks 
this vessel so that the dishes in the galley are broken, 
you may be held responsible. If this should happen 
when hot foods are being prepared or served on 
board the cruiser and someone suffers serious burns 
as a result of the violent rocking caused by your 
wake, you may be held liable. You could be sum¬ 
moned into court and equitable civil damages as¬ 
sessed against you. In addition, you might also be 
cited for operating a motorboat in a reckless 
manner. 


Boating Accident Reports 

The operator of any boat involved in an accident 
must stop, render assistance and offer identifica¬ 
tion. Reports must be made for any accident which 
results in death, personal injury (a person loses 
consciousness or receives medical treatment or is 
disabled for more than 24 hours), property damage 
in amount greater than $100, or the disappearance 
of a person (that indicates death or injury). In 
accidents involving death or disappearance, the 
nearest reporting authority must be notified im¬ 
mediately (and in writing within 48 hours); all other 
accidents must be reported within 5 days. 

Boating accident report forms (CG-3865) may 
be obtained from any Coast Guard office or unit. 
They must be submitted by the operator to the near¬ 
est Coast Guard Officer in Charge, Marine Inspec¬ 
tion, unless the operator is required to file an acci¬ 
dent report with a state having an approved num¬ 
bering system. Accident reports furnish information 
for use in compiling accident prevention data. In¬ 
formation from individual reports will not be pub¬ 
licly disclosed. 


69 



Law Enforcement 

Coast Guard boarding vessels will be identified by 
the Coast Guard ensign and personnel will be in 
uniform. A vessel underway, upon being hailed by a 
Coast Guard vessel or patrolboat, is required to stop 
immediately and lay to or maneuver in such a way as 
to permit the boarding officer to come aboard. 
Failure to stop to permit boarding may subject the 
operator to a penalty which may be as much as $ 100. 

The owner or operator of a vessel which is not 
numbered as required or who fails to file notice of 
transfer, destruction or abandonment of a vessel or 
fails to report a change of address, is liable to a 
penalty which could be as much as $50. 

A civil penalty may be imposed by the Coast 
Guard for reekless or negligent operation, for failure 
to obey the rules of the road or failure to comply 
with regulations. 

The law also provides for a fine of up to $1,000 
and imprisonment of not more than 1 year for the 
eriminal offense of reekless or negligent operation 
of a vessel whieh endangers the life or property of 
any person. 

Courtesy Motorboat Examination 

As a courtesy to pleasure boat owners and 
operators, members of the Coast Guard Auxiliary 
check thousands of boats each .year for legal and 
safety requirements. These members are qualified as 
Courtesy Examiners under strict requirements set 
by the Coast Guard and are very knowledgeable in 
their field. The examinations are performed as a 
courtesy and only with the consent of the pleasure 
boat owner. To pass the examination, a vessel must 
satisfy not only federal equipment requirements but 
also certain additional safety requirements 
recommended by the Auxiliary. If the boat passes 
the examination it is awarded a safety decal which is 
placed conspicuously on the vessel. 

Federal Boat Safety Act of 1971 

In August 1971 major Federal legislation, PL92- 
75 or the Federal Boat Safety Act of 1971 was 
enacted into law. This law manifested the mandate 
given the U.S. Coast Guard by the Congress of the 
United States to improve recreational boat safety. 
Federal regulations which are being or have been 
developed will bring about a number of changes 
designed to improve boating safety. A few of these 
changes affecting sections in this chapter are: 


a. Establish a new system for numbering boats. 
I he Act requires any vessel, if undocumented, 
equipped with propulsion machinery of any type, 
regardless of horsepower, to be numbered. 

b. Establish a uniform system for reporting 
boating accidents. Existing regulations defining 
reportable accidents and reporting procedures will 
be changed. 

c. Establish specific safety standards which boat 
manufacturers must follow in the manufacture of 
boats. These will encompass such areas as capacity, 
notation, safe powering and fire and explosion, 
among others. 

d. Establish specific standards of performance 
for certain associated equipment normally carried 
by recreational boats. 

e. Require a boat manufacturer to report non- 
compliance with a standard or any defect which 
creates a substantial risk of personal injury to the 
public to purchasers of boats by means of a defects 
notification system. 

f. Require that each boat manufactured be 
assigned a hull identification number. 

Regulations have already been issued under the 
new law and became effective April 17, 1972, 
requiring the carriage of Coast Guard approved 
personal flotation devices on all recreational boats. 

The law also authorizes a Coast Guard Boarding 
Officer, when in his judgment continued unsafe use 
of a boat creates an especially hazardous condition, 
to direct the operator to correct the hazardous 
condition immediately or return to a mooring and 
to remain there until the situation creating the 
hazard is corrected or ended. Reasons for using the 
authority are insufficient personal flotation devices 
or firefighting equipment aboard and overloading. 
Other unsafe conditions that may create especially 
hazardous conditions will be defined in future 
regulations. Failure to comply with the orders of the 
Boarding Officer subject the offender to penalties 
provided for under the law. 

Additionally the law authorizes any Coast Guard 
District Commander (not his stafO to issue 
regulations for a specific boat designating that boat 
unsafe for a specific voyage on a specific body of 
water when he has determined that such a voyage 
would be a manifestly unsafe voyage. 


70 


CHAPTER 5 


Rules of the Road 


Introduction 

Men have been sailing the seas sinee the begin¬ 
ning of history. For thousands of years, the open 
oeean was a lonely place to be. Vessels rarely met on 
the high seas and the sight of an occasional sail on 
the horizon was an event guaranteed to break the 
monotony of the long voyage. As the world’s trade 
increased and traffic became more regular on estab¬ 
lished shipping lanes, the chances of vessels meeting 
became greater. In 1863, Great Britain and France 
adopted a code of uniform regulations for prevent¬ 
ing collisions at sea. In 1864, the Congress of the 
United States adopted a similiar set of rules. In 
1865, other countries adopted these rules but it was 
not until 1889 that representatives from the world’s 
seafaring nations met in Washington D. C. to 
create an international code of rules for vessels on 
the high seas. The language barrier must have been 
formidable since these men were attempting to de¬ 
fine exact shades of meaning. Since maritime cus¬ 
toms of that day differed widely, it is to their 
everlasting credit that they managed to agree on a 
code of rules for vessels at sea. This code was known 
as the International Rules of the Road and was in 
use until the International Rules of 1948 were 
adopted and put into effect. There have been revis¬ 
ions since then but, by and large, the changes have 
been comparatively minor. 

It is important to point out that the above men¬ 
tioned rules apply to the international waters of the 
high seas only. Territorial waters were left to the 
jurisdiction of each country involved. The United 
States has legislated in this area, although no single 
code could be expected to cover all regions and 
special situations in U. S. waters. Consequently, 
we have several codes. These codes are commonly 
known as the Inland Rules, the Great Lakes Rules 


and the Western Rivers Rules. Each code applies 
to certain waters and each contains rules for special 
situations peculiar to these waters. In addition to 
these, we also have Pilot Rules, the Department of 
the Army Rules and Regulations, the Act of April 
25, 1940, better known as the Motorboat Act, and 
others. 

Enough rules to sink a ship? Not really. The 
primary purpose of each and every one of them is 
to prevent collisions at sea and on our navigable 
waters. There are almost as many rules as there are 
possible situations but, strangely enough, they work! 
When the early draftsmen of these rules gave sailing 
craft the right-of-way over power driven vessels, they 
did so for a very good reason. Sailing vessels do not 
enjoy the relative ease of maneuverability of pow¬ 
ered craft since they depend on the wind for their 
propulsion. When our Inland Rules were written 
(in 1897), they were patterned closely on the Inter¬ 
national (high seas) Rules and that feature giving 
sailing vessels the right-of-way (most of the time) 
over powered vessels was retained. The writers of 
our early Inland Rules can be forgiven for not hav¬ 
ing the foresight to envision a confrontation be¬ 
tween an 8 foot long sail boat and a 1,000 foot long 
ocean liner. Until a few years ago, your teen-aged 
daughter, out for a day’s sail in a sailing dinghy, 
could force the RMS Queen Mary to give way in 
the congested waters of New York harbor. This is 
not so today but one cannot blame the “Mary” for 
finally giving up in sheer desperation and consenting 
to spend her declining years in the sedate comfort 
of the Port of Long Beach, California. 

For the student who is about to tackle the subject 
of Rules of the Road for the very first time - a word 
of encouragement. You will not be expected to 
know them all. However, regardless of where you 


71 


do your boating, other skippers have the right to 
assume that you know what you're doing. So the 
Rules that you will have to learn are those which 
apply to your boat and the waters on which you will 
sail or cruise. Remember, when you take the wheel 
or tiller, there is a presumption of knowledge I If 
you fail to observe the rules, the fact that you did 
not know them will not be accepted as a valid de¬ 
fense in any citation which may result as a conse¬ 
quence of your actions. 

Jurisdiction 

All vessels are required to observ^e the rules of the 
road which apply to the waters on which they navi¬ 
gate. These codes, mentioned briefly heretofore, 
are to be found in the following U. S. Coast Guard 
publications and apply to the waters described be¬ 
low: 

Rules of the Road, International—Inland (CG’169) 

The Coast Guard has included the Rules for both these 
waters in the one publication, CG-169. 

International Rules apply on the high seas sea¬ 
ward of the established boundary lines between 
International and Inland waters, and on certain 
foreign waters. Inland Rules apply to all waters 
inshore of these boundary lines except the Great 
Lakes and the Western Rivers. The boundary lines 
for Inland Rules of the Road are established by the 
Commandant of the Coast Guard. A boundary line 
is designated for most bays, sounds, harbors, rivers 
or estuaries in U. S. waters which connect to the 
high seas. These lines are described in the back of 
CG-169 and CG-184 and, where appropriate, on 
various charts of coastal waters. 

Rules of the Road, Great Lakes (CG-172) 

Great Lakes rules apply to the waters of the Great 
Lakes and their connecting tributaries as far east 
as Montreal. 

Rules of the Road, Western Rivers (CG-184) 

Western Rivers rules apply to the waters of the 
Mississippi River between its source and the Huey 
P. Long Bridge and all of its tributaries emptying 
thereinto and their tributaries, that part of the 
Atchafalaya River above its junction with the Pla- 
quemine-Morgan City alternate waterway, and the 
Red River of the North. 


Some Definitions 

As we develop the subject, we will be using terms 
which may be unfamiliar or new. Because these 
rules are in fact laws, exact definitions become very 
important. The following terms will appear through¬ 
out this Chapter, so let’s “define our terms” before 
we proceed further. 

I'essel—Every description of watercraft used or capable of being 
used as a means of transportation on the water. 

Poiver J'essel—\n) vessel propelled by machinery, including any 
sailing vessel under sail AND power. 

Steam Vessel—Any vessel propelled by machinery. 

Sailing Vessel—Any vessel which is under sail alone, including 
any power vessel under sail and not under power. 
Underway—Not at anchor, aground, or made fast to the shore. 
Danger Zone—The area from dead ahead of a vessel to two 
points abaft her starboard beam. 

Right-of-Way—The right and duty to maintain Course and 
Speed. 

Privileged Vessel—The vessel which has the right-of-way. 
Burdened Vessel—The vessel which must keep clear of the 
privileged vessel. 

Visible (when applied to lights)—Visible on a dark, clear night. 
Short Blast (on whistle)—A blast of about one second’s duration. 
Prolonged Blast (on whistle)—A blast of from four to six sec¬ 
onds’ duration. 

Distinct Blast (on whistle)—A clearly audible blast of any 
length. 

Engaged In Fishing—Fishing with nets, lines or trawls, but does 
not include fishing with trolling lines. 

Point—An arc of 111/4“ of the horizon (32 points equal the full 
circle 360®). 

General Categories 

As we study the Rules of the Road, we will divide 
them into three general categories; (1) Lights and 
Shapes; (2) Steering and Sailing Rules, and Sound 
Signals; and (3) Fog Signals. The latter two will 
be separated into four sections, one for each set of 
Rules. The first category. Lights and Shapes, will be 
separated into two sections, one for the “Motorboat 
Act” waters and the other for international waters 
of the high seas. 

Lights and Shapes 

Your lights convey information to others under 
conditions of restricted visibility or at night when 
your vessel is not otherwise visible. The lights that 
you must carry and display depend on whether your 
vessel is under power or under sail, its length and the 
waters on which you do your boating. The 
regulations for lights for boats navigating on all 
Inland waters, the Great Lakes and the Western 
Rivers, fall under the jurisdiction of the Motorboat 


72 


Act for vessels not over 65 feet in length. If you do 
your boating on international waters, the Inter¬ 
national Rules apply. Lights prescribed under the 
International Rules may be carried and displayed 
on all inland waters, including the Great Lakes and 
the Western Rivers but not the reverse. So, if your 
boating is done sometimes on inland and sometimes 
on international waters, you should equip your craft 
with international lights. 

It might be well to mention at this point that a 
motorboat (under the Motorboat Act) is any ves¬ 
sel not over 65 feet in length that is propelled by 
machinery. A sailing auxiliary (a sailboat which has 
an engine installed or which has an outboard engine 
aboard which can be mounted and used for propul¬ 
sion) is considered to be a motorboat within the 
meaning of the Motorboat Act and must display 
the lights of a motorboat of its class while underway 
under power, reglardless of whether the vessel is un¬ 
der sail and power or under power only. 


Are of Visibility of Lights on Vessels 

Lights carried on vessels are defensive in the sense 
that they are not intended for illumination but for 
identification or warning. The law requires that 
these lights be clearly visible throughout their pres¬ 
cribed arc of visibility and that they be effectively 
screened so that they will not be visible through the 
balance of the circle. The arc of visibility for lights 
on vessels is called out in points, each point being 
equal to 11 Vi ° of the circle. Thirty-two points equal 
a complete circle. The arc of visibility for prescribed 
lights on vessels are as follows: 

10 points (112Vi°) Visible from right (dead) ahead to 2 points 




abaft the respective beams. 

12 points 

(135») 

Visible from right (dead) astern to 2 points 
abaft the beam on both sides. 

20 points 

(225=) 

Visible from right (dead) ahead to 2 points 
abaft the beam on both sides. 

32 points 

(360°) 

Visible throughout the complete circle of 
the horizon. 


BOW 



73 











Lights under the Motorboat Act 
(Inland, Western Rivers and Great Lakes) 

These lights must be carried and exhibited by all 
motorboats in all weathers from sunset to sunrise 
when underway. No other lights which can be mis¬ 
taken for these lights may be displayed. 

Motorboats under 26 Feet in Length 

1. A 32-point white light aft, visible for 2 miles, 
high enough to be seen all around the horizon. 
This light may be carried off the center line 
if necessary. 

2. A combined lantern in the forepart of the ves¬ 
sel, lower than the white light aft, showing 
green to starboard and red to port, of 10 points 
each, fixed so as to show from right ahead to 
2 points abaft the beam on their respective 
sides, visible for 1 mile. 


WHITE 32 PTS 
VIS 2 MILES 



5-2 Motorboat Under 26 Feet in Length 

Motorboats 26 Feet to 65 Feet in Length 

1. A 20-point white light in the fore part of the 
vessel as near the stem as practicable, fixed 
to show from right ahead to 2 points abaft 
the beam on both sides, visible for 2 miles. 

2. A 32-point white light aft to show all around 


the horizon, visible for 2 miles. This light 
must be higher than the white light forward. 

3. Separate red and green side lights, red to port 
and green to starboard, of 10 points each, 
fixed to show from right ahead to 2 points 
abaft the beam on their respective sides, vis¬ 
ible for 1 mile. 



WHITE 20 PTS, VIS 2 MILES 


5-3 Motorboat 26 Feet through 65 Feet in Length 

Sailing Auxiliaries 

Under Sail and Power, or Power Alone 

A sailing auxiliary not over 65 feet in length 
must carry and exhibit the same lights as a motor- 
boat of its class while underway under sail and 
power or power alone. 

Under Sail Alone, Under 26 Feet in Length 
When under sail alone, a sailing auxiliary under 
26 feet in length must carrv and exhibit the follow¬ 
ing lights: 

1. A combined lantern in the forepart of the ves¬ 
sel, showing green to starboard and red to 
port, of 10 points each, fixed so as to show 
from right ahead to 2 points abaft the beam 
on their respccti\c sides, visible for 1 mile. 
Note: Separate 10-point red and green side 
lights may be carried in lieu of the combined 
lantern. 

2. A 12-point white.light aft, \ isiblc for 2 miles, 
fi.xed so as to show from right astern to 2 
points abaft the beam on both sides of the 
vessel. 


74 


Note; Under Great Lakes Rules, the 12- 
point white stern light is not required for a 
vessel underway under sail alone; but a white 
light must be available to display on the quar¬ 
ter from whieh a vessel is approaehing. This 
light must be shown in time to prevent a eol- 
lision. 

Under Sail Alone, 26 Feet Through 65 Feet in 
Length 

When under sail alone, a sailing auxiliary 26 feet 
in length through 65 feet in length must carry and 
exhibit the following lights; 

1. Separate red and green side lights showing 
red to port and green to starboard, of 10 points 
each, fixed to show from right ahead to 2 
points abaft the beam on their respective 
sides, visible for 1 mile. 

2. A 12-point white light aft, visible for 2 miles, 
fixed so as to show from right astern to 2 
points abaft the beam on both sides of the 
vessel. 



5-4 Sailing Auxiliary, Under Sail Alone, 
Under 26 Feet in Length 


Note: Under Great Lakes Rules, the 12- 
point white stern light is not required for a 
\’essel underway under sail alone; but a white 
light must be available to display on the quar¬ 
ter from which a \ csscl is appproaching. This 
light must be shown in time to prevent a col¬ 
lision. 

Sailboats 

Sailboats (sailing vessels with no engines aboard) 
must carry and exhibit the following lights: 

1. Separate red and green side lights, showing 
red to port and green to starboard, of 10 points 
each, fixed to show from right ahead to 2 
points abaft the beam on their respective 
sides, visible for 2 miles. 

2. A 12-point white light aft, visible for 2 miles, 
fixed so as to show from right astern to 2 
points abaft the beam on both sides of the 
vessel. 

Note: Under Great Lakes Rules, the 12- 



5-5 Sailing Auxiliary, Under Sail Only, 
26 Ft. to 65 Ft. in Length 













point white stem light is not required for a 
vessel underwa^' under sail alone; but a white 
light must be available to display on the quar- 
ter from whieh a vessel is approaehing. This 
light must be shown in time to prevent a eol- 
lision. 



Rowing Boats 

Rowing boats, whether under sail or under oars, 
shall have ready at hand a lantern showing a white 
light whieh shall be temporarily exhibited in suffi¬ 
cient time to avert a collision. 

Lights under the International Rules of the Road 

These lights must be carried and exhibited by all 
vessels in all weathers from sunset to sunrise when 
underway. No other lights which can be mistaken 
for these lights may be displayed. 

Motorboats under 40 Feet in Length 

1. A combined lantern in the forepart of the 


vessel, showing green to starboard and red to 
port, of 10 points each, fixed so as to show 
from right ahead to 2 points abaft the beam 
on their respective sides, visible for 1 mile. Or 
separate red and green side lights, red to port 
and green to starboard, of 10 points each, fixed 
to show from right ahead to 2 points abaft 
the beam on their respective sides, visible for 

1 mile. 

2. In the forepart of the vessel, where it can best 
be seen, a white light of 20 points, \'isiblc 3 
milts, fixed so as to show from right ahead to 

2 points abaft the beam on both sides of the 
vessel. This light must be carried at least 3 feet 
higher than the colored lights. 

3. At the stern, a white 12-point light, visible 2 
miles, fixed so as to show from right astern to 
2 points abaft the beam on both sides of the 
vessel. 

Motorboats 40 Feet Through 65 Feet in Length 

1. Separate red and green side lights, red to port 
and green to starboard, of 10 points each, 
fixed so as to show from right ahead to 2 
points abaft the beam on their respective 
sides, visible 1 mile. A combination lantern 
may be substituted for these separate side 
lights. 

2. In the forepart of the vessel, where it can best 
be seen, a white light of 20 points, visible 3 
miles, fixed so as to show from right ahead to 
2 points abaft the beam on both sides of the 
vessel. This light must be carried at least 9 
feet above the gunwale. 

3. At the stern, a white 12-point light, visible 2 
miles, fixed so as to show from right astern to 
2 points abaft the beam on both sides of the 
vessel. 

Under Sail and Power, or Power Alone 

A sailing auxiliar)^ must carry and exhibit the 
same lights as a motorboat of its class while under¬ 
way under sail and pow'er or power alone. In prac¬ 
tice, the 20-point white light, required to be placed 
in the forepart of the vessel, is generally fixed on 
the foremast high enough so that it will not be 
obscured by the jib. 


76 






WHITE 12 PTS 



Under Sail Alone 

A sailing auxiliary underway under sail alone must 
carry and exhibit the same lights as a motorboat of 
its class except the 20-point white light, which is 
extinguished. A sailing auxiliary under sail alone 
may display at the top of the foremast two lights 
in a vertical line (one over the other) sufficiently 
separated so as to be clearly distinguished. The 
upper light shall be red and the lower light shall 
be green. Both lights shall be 20-point lights, visible 



WHITE 12 PTS 
VIS 2 MILES 


SEPARATE 
RED-GREEN 
10 PTS EACH 
VIS I MILE 


5-8 Motorboat 

40 Feet Through 65 Feet Long 


WHITE 20 PTS 
VIS 3 MILES 
Must be carried 
at least 9 ft 
above gunwhale 


2 miles, fixed so as to show from right ahead to 2 
points abaft the beam on both sides of the vessel. 
These lights are optional for sailboats and sailing 
auxiliaries under sail only. 


Sailboats 

Sailing vessels with no engines aboard shall carry 
and exhibit the following lights: 

1. Separate red and green side lights, showing 
red to port and green to starboard, of 10 points each. 




5-9 Auxiliaries Under Sail and Power 

77 







(OPTIONAL) 



5-10 Optional for All Boats Under Sail Alone in 
International Waters Only 

fixed to show from right ahead to 2 points abaft 
the beam on their respective sides, visible 1 mile. 
Note: Sailing vessels of less than 40 feet may use a 
combination lantern in place of the separate side¬ 
lights. 

2. A 12-point white light aft, visible for 2 miles, 
fixed so as to show from right astern to 2 points 
abaft the beam on both sides of the vessel. 

3. Sailboats may optionally carry the masthead 
red and green lights described above under Sailing 
Auxiliaries Under Sail Alone. 


Large vessels carry lights which should be of some 
interest to the small boat skipper. Large vessels 
develop strong wave patterns which the small boat 
skipper will do well to keep clear of, particularly at 
night. Large vessels underway at night may be ident¬ 
ified by their range lights. Power driven vessels over 
150 feet in length underway in international waters 
carry a 20-point white light, visible 5 miles, in the 



5-11 Sailboat 40 Feet or Over 

forepart of the vessel and, abaft this white light 
and in line with and over the keel, another 20 
point white light, also visible 5 miles, and at least 
15 feet higher than the forward white light. When 
a large vessel is approaching at night, these range 
lights will be seen one above the other. The vessel’s 
heading with relation to your boat can be deter¬ 
mined by the position of these range lights. For 
instance, if these range lights appear exactly above 
one another, the vessel is heading straight for your 
boat and it’s important to get out of its way as soon 
as possible! 

In inland waters, the after range light is op¬ 
tional for seagoing steam vessels. On steam vessels, 
an after range light must be shown. This range 
light is a white, 32-point light. 

Ferryboats plying Inland waters are usually 
double-ended and have a specific set of lighting re¬ 
quirements. Two sets of colored side lights are car¬ 
ried and one set is used according to which direction 
the ferry is moving. The white lights are seen all 
around the horizon (32 points) and, in addition. 


78 









they may carry a special light assigned to it by the 
officer in charge of Marine Inspection. This special 
light may be of any color and will usually be car¬ 
ried amidships, at least 15 feet above the range 
lights, visible all around the horizon. 

Tow boats and the barges they push or tow are 
lighted according to each set of rules in a different 
manner. Our rivers and our harbors are constantlv 
being dredged. Dredges have equipment protrud¬ 
ing from them and pipelines or barges which carr\' 
away the waste. These units are lighted to warn 
you to keep clear at night. Buoy tenders and \’essels 
working over wrecks also have their own set of 
lighting requirements. Certain prescribed areas 
have special lighting combinations which are pecu¬ 
liar to the area. For instance, on the Gulf Intra¬ 
coastal Wateru'ay the rules gox^erning towed vessels 
in Western Rivers are followed. Another set of 
rules governs the waters around New York harbor 
and the Hudson River. Specific lighting require¬ 
ments are prescribed for \’essels which are on pilot 
duty, either on station or on their wav to station. 
The lights which will be seen on vessels which 
defiote their occupation will usually be verticallv 
arranged and will be white or red or a combination 
of these colors. It is important to realize that when¬ 
ever you see a lighting arrangement other than the 
regular running lights on vessels in your area, the 
vessels thus lighted are unable to maneuver except 
with difficulty. In some cases, they cannot maneu¬ 
ver at all. It is always a good idea to approach these 
vessels cautiously and keep well clear of any equip¬ 
ment which might be projecting from them. The 
student is advised that lighting patterns on various 
working vessels var\^ greatly and would require a 
considerable mental effort to memorize. Rather 
than attempt to do this, play it safe and give them 
a wide berth. 

Anchor Lights 

Certain anchorage areas have been designated by 
the Secretary of the Army as “special anchorage 
areas” and vessels not over 65 feet in length may 
anchor in these areas without being required to 
show an anchor light at night. Under all other 
conditions, all vessels must display one or more 
lights while at anchor at night. All four sets of rules 
require a vessel under 1 50 feet in length to display 


a white 32-point light, carried forward, where it 
can best be seen. In International, Inland, and 
Western Rivers, this light must be visible for 2 
miles. On the Great Lakes, the visibility require¬ 
ment for this anchor light is 1 mile. Large vessels 
over .150 feet in length are required by Inter¬ 
national, Inland and Western Rivers Rules to carry 
two anchor lights, the forward light being carried 
higher than the after light. On the Great Lakes, the 
anchor lights are carried in pairs, two forward at 
the same height, arranged so that one or the other, 
or both, are visible all around the horizon, and two 
aft, similarly arranged but lower than the forward 
lights. In addition. Great Lakes Rules require 
vessels over 150 feet in length to display white 
deck lights at 100 ft. intervals along the deck, 
visible from any angle of approach. 

Shapes (Day Signals) 

In the daytime, vessels engaged in certain specific 
occupations are required to display signals or shapes. 
The list of these signals is long and there would be 
no point in attempting to memorize them. Shapes 
are usually fabric-covered frames in the shape of 
balls, cones, diamonds or eylinders. Day signals 
and shapes are used to indieate vessels • whieh are 
given speeial privileges by the Rules of the Road 
(such as vessels engaged in fishing—Rule 26). If 
a vessel is entitled to a privilege, it must display 
the proper shape to obtain it. A good rule-of-thumb 
would be to consider all vessels whieh display sueh 
shapes as being ineapable of maneuvering exeept 
with difficulty, and thus unable to react quickly to 
situations imposed upon them by other vessels. 
There is one situation, however, where this rule-of- 
thumb does not apply. Rule 14 of the International 
Rules requires a sailboat underway under sail and 
power to display by day a black conical shape, point 
downwards, earned forward where it ean best be 
seen. This exception to the rule-of-thumb is not 
serious since the signal just deseribed will seldom, 
if ever, be encountered. Thus for all practieal pur¬ 
poses the rule-of-thumb remains inviolate. When¬ 
ever you see a vessel at anehor or underway display¬ 
ing a day signal, approach it with caution or stay 
away from it if possible. 


79 


Steering and Sailing Rules and Sound Signals 

These rules determine which vessel has the right- 
of-way in situations where vessels are meeting, 
crossing or overtaking. In each case (except for 
vessels meeting bow-on or nearly so) one vessel is 
‘'privileged” and has the right-of-way and the other 
is “burdened” and must keep clear of the privileged 
vessel. 

Privileged Vessel Duty 

The vessel which has the right-of-way (the priv¬ 
ileged vessel) has a duty to maintain course and 
speed. This is logical in the sense that it gives the 
burdened vessel an opportunity to base its actions 
on a known set of conditions. The privileged ves¬ 
sel’s duty to maintain course and speed ends 
abruptly the instant a collision is imminent. The 
general prudential rule, mentioned later in this 
chapter, will explain this but for the moment it 
is important to realize that the privileged vessel 
also becomes burdened when a collision is immi¬ 
nent and the situation is considered to be “in 
extremis.” 

Burdened Vessel Duty 

The vessel which does not have the right-of-way 
(the burdened vessel) has a duty to take positive 
and timely action to keep out of the way of the 
privileged vessel. This does not mean to increase 
speed and cross ahead of the privileged vessel! In 
fact, the rules state that the burdened vessel shall, 
if possible, avoid crossing ahead of the privileged 
vessel. The burdened vessel, when changing head¬ 
ing to comply with the Rules of the Road, should 
make such changes in heading smartly and defi¬ 
nitely in order that its action can be easily observed 
by those aboard the privileged vessel. The burdened 
vessel usually conforms to the rules in crossing 
situations by changing course briefly or slowing 
down (or both) and passing astern of the privileged 
vessel. However, before we get into this, let’s take 
a good look at a very important rule. 

The General Prudential Rule 

The General Prudential Rule is found in all four 
sets of Rules of the Road. It is called Article 27 
in the Inland Rules. It is called Rule 27 in the 
International Rules and also in the Great Lakes 


Rules. It is called “Rule Numbered 25” in the 
Western Rivers Rules. In each case, however, its 
wording (and meaning) is almost the same. 

‘In obeying and construing these rules due 
regard shall be had to all dangers of navigation 
and collision, and to any special circumstances, 
which may render a departure from the above 
rules necessary in order to avoid immediate 
danger_” 

Thus we see that the General Prudential Rule 
does not apply only on such occasions as it may 
appear convenient. The steering and sailing rules 
must be observed under all normal circumstances. 
It is only when a collision is imminent, and would 
certainly occur if both vessels continued on their 
present course and speed, that the General Pruden¬ 
tial Rule applies. The Courts have held . . . 

“... When such departure becomes necessary, 
neither vessel shall have the right-of-way and both 
vessels shall navigate with caution until the dan¬ 
ger of collision is over.” 

As we have seen, the privileged vessel is obliged 
to maintain course and speed under normal condi¬ 
tions until such time that a collision becomes im¬ 
minent. At that instant, the privileged vessel also 
becomes burdened and is obliged to take all actions 
necessary to avoid the collision. To put it simply, 
the privileged vessel does not, at any time, have the 
right-of-way through the hull of another vessel! 

When Rules of the Road Apply 

It has been said (in jest) that risk of collision 
exists whenever two vessels are on the same ocean 
at the same time. While we know this to be a gross 
exaggeration, the exact time when steering and sail¬ 
ing rules must be applied is difficult to define. 
Mr. Justice Clifford, in N.Y. & LIVERPOOL vs 
RUMBALL, said, “Rules of navigation are obliga¬ 
tory on vessels approaching each other, from the 
time the necessity of precaution begins, and con¬ 
tinue to be applicable as the vessels advance, so 
long as the means and opportunity to avoid dan¬ 
ger remain. They are equally inapplicable to ves¬ 
sels of any description while they are yet so distant 
from each other that measures of precaution have 
not become necessary to avoid a collision.” 

F"rom this, it is comparatively simple to define 


80 


the time when steering and sailing rules of the 
road do not apply. They do not apply when the 
vessels are so kr apart that a danger of collision 
will not arise regardless of the actions of either 
vessel. Thus, by elimination, we can safely deduce 
that if the vessels are sufEciently close to each 
other that a departure from the rules by either 
vessel will create a danger of collision, steering and 
sailing rules must be applied from that point in 
time until both vessels are again clear of each other. 

We should keep in mind that compliance with 
the rules is mandatory upon each vessel, and not 
optional. There is no choice of action by either 
vessel until the danger of collision is so imminent 
that both vessels must take evasive action. 

The Situations 

Steering rules between power vessels are based 
on all possible situations. In each case, both vessels 
must observe the rules until they are well clear of 
one another. Basically, there are three main situa¬ 
tions which can lead to a collision afloat. These 
situations are: 

The meeting situation 
The crossing situation 
The overtaking situation 

All of the situations between power vessels are 
shown in the diagram on this page. Remember, 
rules apply when two or more vessels are in sight of 
one another and only when the vessels are sufficient¬ 
ly close that for both vessels to continue on their 
present course and speed would create a danger 
of collision. 

You are the skipper of the vessel in the center 
of the diagram. You must keep out of the way of 
any vessel approaching you in the arc from dead 
ahead (or right ahead) of you to 2 points abaft 
your starboard beam. All the other vessels in the 
diagram — except the meeting vessel — must keep 
clear of you. Both you and the meeting vessel must 
alter course as necessary to pass clear of each other. 

Normally, all the situations can be observed in 
the making by simply taking a series of bearings 
on the other vessel or its lights at night. Unless the 
vessels are sailing on courses which parallel one 
another, if the bearings do not change substantially 
between sights, a collision is almost inevitable. The 



"burdened" vessel is required to change course or 
speed, or both, while the "privileged” vessel is re¬ 
quired to hold her course and speed. Where small 
craft are concerned, good sense is one of the best 
rules. In other words, when you can, seek to avoid 
a situation instead of frantically searching your 
mind for the exactly proper rule to get you safelv 
out of it. 

Generally speaking, the right-of-way situations 
between vessels are quite similar in all four sets of 
Rules. In order that you might more easily learn 
the rules which apply to your boat and to your 
waters, the balance of this chapter will be divided 
into separate subdivisions — International, Inland, 
Great Lakes and Western Rivers. In addition, we 
have included a section on sailboat rules for those 
of you who operate sailboats. Power boat skippers 
may be interested in this section since it should help 
to clear up some of the mystery which surrounds 
the actions of sailboats seen nearby. Your instruc¬ 
tor will tell you which set of Rules apply to vonr 
waters. These should be learned thoroughly since 
there usually isn't enough time to "look it up” when 
two boats are converging at a speed of 15 knots 
each. The combined speed of approach in this situ¬ 
ation is 30 knots, which means that you will have 


81 




a minute at most to decide what you are going 
to do. 

International Rules of the Road 

Power Vessels Meeting End on (or Head on) 
Rule 18 of the International Rules of the Road 
covers this situation well. When two power driven 
vessels are meeting head on, or nearly so, so as to 
involve risk of collision, neither vessel shall have 
the right-of-way, and each vessel shall alter her 
course to starboard so that each may pass on the 
port side of the other. Remember, this rule applies 


only if the vessels are meeting head on in such a 
way as to involve risk of collision. It does not apply 
if both vessels, keeping to their respective courses, 
will pass safely clear of one another. 

Power Vessels Crossing 

Rule 19 takes care of crossing situations. When 
two power driven vessels are crossing, so as to in¬ 
volve risk of collision, the vessel which has the 
other on her own starboard side shall keep out of 
the way of the other. In the daytime, a vessel ap¬ 
proaching on your starboard side can be easily seen. 
At night, if you see the red side light of another 







5-13 Meeting Situations Under International Rules 
Neither Vessel Has The Right-Of-Way. 

82 






PRIVILEGED VESSEL 



5-14 Crossing Situation Under International Rules 


vessel which is crossing your course on your star¬ 
board side, that vessel has the right-of-way and 
you must keep clear. 

Power Vessels Overtaking 

If a vessel is overtaking another, it is burdened 
until the overtaken vessel has been passed and is 
clear. Rule 24 states that every vessel coming up 
with another vessel from any direction more than 
2 points abaft her beam shall be deemed to be an 
overtaking vessel. No subsequent alteration of the 
bearing between these two vessels shall relieve the 
overtaking vessel of her duty of keeping clear of 
the overtaken vessel until she is finally past and 
clear. If the overtaking vessel is in doubt whether 
she is forward or abaft the direction of 2 points 
abaft the beam of the overtaken vessel, she shall 
assume that she is an overtaking vessel and shall 


keep clear. At night, if you are unable to see the 
overtaken vessel’s side lights (red or green), you 
should assume that you are overtaking and keep 
clear. 

Power Vessels in Narrow Channels and Bends 
In a narrow channel, every power vessel shall 
keep to the right side of the channel when it is 
safe and practicable to do so. When a power vessel 
is nearing a bend in a narrow channel where a ves¬ 
sel approaching from the other direction might not 
be seen, at about the time she arrives within one- 
half mile of the bend she shall sound one pro¬ 
longed blast (4 to 6 seconds) on the whistle as a 
signal. If another vessel is within hearing around 
the bend, this other vessel shall answer the signal 
with a similar blast. However, even if no reply is 
heard to the original signal, the vessel shall navi¬ 
gate the bend with alertness and caution. 


83 
































BURDENED 




5-15 Overtaking Situation Under 
International Rules 


In a narrow channel, a power vessel of less than 
65 feet in length shall not hamper the safe passage 
of a vessel which can navigate only inside such 
channel. In other words, don’t play “right-of-way 
games” with large vessels in a narrow channel. It 
is not only against the law but it could be costly. 
Large deep-draft vessels are difficult to maneuver 
in narrow channels and must, of necessity, remain 
within the limits of the channel. Your boat is ex¬ 
tremely more maneuverable in the channel and so 
the rules state that you do not have the right-of- 
way. This is only common sense. 

Right-of-Way of Fishing Vessels 
All fishing vessels which are fishing with nets, 
lines or trawls are considered to be fishing vessels 
under the International Rules. Vessels fishing with 
trolling lines are not considered to be fishing ves¬ 
sels. Fishing vessels have the right-of-way and all 
other vessels shall keep out of their way. The stu¬ 
dent is reminded that the fact that he might be 


trolling a lure aft of his boat or from outriggers 
does not make his vessel a fishing vessel under the 
rules. A fishing vessel must display a basket or two 
black cones in the rigging. When you see these, it’s 
a good idea to keep well clear. 

Sailing Vessel Right-of-Way 

When a power-driven vessel and a sailing vessel 
(under sail only) are proceeding in such directions 
as to involve risk of collision, the power-driven ves¬ 
sel shall keep clear of the sailing vessel except in 
the following situations; 

1. When a sailing vessel is overtaking a power- 
driven vessel the overtaken vessel (in this case 
the power vessel) has the right-of-way, and 
the sailing vessel shall keep out of the way. 

2. A sailing vessel shall keep clear of any vessel 
engaged in fishing with nets, lines or trawls. 

3. In a narrow channel, a sailing vessel shall not 
hamper the safe passage of a power-driven 


84 



vessel which can navigate only inside such 
channel. 

Sailboat skippers should realize, however, that 
even though power boats are far more maneuver- 
able than sailboats, power boats do not have power 
brakes. It is foolhardy to defy fate by tacking im¬ 
mediately under the bow of a power boat in the 
comforting assurance that you have the right-of- 
way. The power boat’s transmission could fail to 
engage in full reverse and an accident could ver\' 
likely result. Having the right-of-way is small com¬ 
fort when viewed in the light of a damaged hull 
and possible injury to those aboard. 

Sound Signals Under the International Rules 
of the Road 

On the international waters or the high seas, one, 
two and three blast sound signals are considered 
“course indicating signals” and are accompanied by 
a change of course or some other action on the 
part of the vessel sounding such signals. These sig¬ 
nals are given only when vessels are in sight of one 
another. There are three such signals, and they are 
as, follows. 

One short blast (1 second) means “I am alter¬ 
ing my course to starboard.... Two short blasts 
(1 second each) means “I am altering my course 
to port.... Three short blasts (1 second each) 
means “My engines are going astern. ... 

Whenever a power vessel which, under the rules, 
is to keep her course and speed (a privileged ves¬ 
sel), and she is in doubt whether sufficient action 
is being taken by the other (burdened) vessel to 
avert a collision, she may indicate such doubt by 
giving the danger signal. This signal is as follows: 

Five or more short blasts (1 second each) on the 
whistle. 

The fact that a vessel sounds the danger signal 
does not relieve her of her obligations to keep a 
proper lookout and to observ^e the general pru¬ 
dential rule. 

As stated earlier, sound signals under Interna¬ 
tional Rules are signals indicating an action or 
doubt and as such are normally not answered by 
the other vessel. Any whistle signal under the rules 
may be further indicated by a visual signal consist¬ 
ing of a white light visible all around the horizon 


(32 points) at a distance of at least five miles, 
which will operate simultaneously with the whistle 
and remain lighted and visible during the same 
period as the sound signal. 

Conduct in Restricted Visibility Under the 

International Rules 

Radar 

The development of RADAR has made it pos¬ 
sible to “see” through fog to a limited degree. The 
student is cautioned, however, that even though 
his vessel may be equipped with RADAR, under 
the International Rules of the Road the informa¬ 
tion obtained from RADAR does not relieve the 
vessel so equipped from the obligation of conform¬ 
ing strictly with the rules in conditions of restricted 
visibility. 

Fog Signals 

Fog signals are required to be sounded by all ves¬ 
sels (power and sail) in fog, mist, falling snow, 
heav\' rainstorms or any other condition of re¬ 
stricted visibility, whether by day or night. Power- 
driven vessels shall sound fog signals on the whistle 
and sailing vessels shall sound fog signals on the 
fog horn. 

A power vessel making headway through the 
water shall sound one prolonged blast (4 to 6 sec¬ 
onds) on the whistle at least every 2 minutes. 

A power vessel underway but stopped and mak¬ 
ing no way through the water shall sound two pro¬ 
longed blasts on the whistle, with an interval of 
about one second between blasts, at least every two 
minutes. 

A sailing vessel underway shall sound, at inter¬ 
vals of not more than one minute, the following 
signals on the fog horn. 

If on the starboard tack — one blast. 

If on the port tack — two blasts in succession. 

If the wind is abaft the beam — three blasts in 
succession. 

The rules do not specify the length of time for 
each blast. The “tack” is determined by the relative 
direction of the wind. Port tack indicates wind is 
blowing over the port bow. Starboard tack in¬ 
dicates wind is coming over the starboard bow. 


85 


Vessels at Anchor 

When at anchor, every vessel shall ring the bell 
rapidly for at least five seconds at intervals of not 
more than one minute. Large vessels (over 350 feet 
in length) also sound a gong at the stern when an¬ 
chored in a fog. All vessels may, in addition, sound 
three blasts on the whistle or fog horn as follows: 
One short, one prolonged and one short blast, to 
give warning of her position and of the possibility 
of collision to any vessel which appears to be stand¬ 
ing into danger of a collision. Towing vessels and 
fishing vessels sound one prolonged blast followed 
by two short blasts. Barges or vessels towed sound 
one prolonged blast and three short blasts (if 
manned) immediately after the tow’s signal. 

Speed in Fog 

In conditions of impaired visibility, all vessels 
shall proceed at a moderate speed, having careful 
regard to the existing circumstances and condi¬ 
tions. A vessel which hears the fog signal of another 
vessel apparently ahead of her beam shall stop, 
reverse her engines if necessary, and proceed with 
caution until danger of collision has passed. In 
conditions of impaired visibility, speed should be 
governed to a great extent by the visible distance. 
It would appear logical to give one-half of the vis¬ 
ible distance to the other vessel. Under this assump¬ 
tion, any vessel underway in fog should be able 
to stop in half of her visible distance. The speed, 
thus determined would be the maximum speed 
allowed under the rules of good seamanship in the 
circumstances. 

Inland Rules of the Road 

Power Vessels Meeting Head-on 

When two power vessels are approaching each 
other head-on, and a danger of collision arises, 
neither vessel is privileged and each should alter 
course to the right to pass clear. One vessel will 
sound one short (1 second) blast on her whistle, 
indicating her intention to pass port to port. This 
signal will be immediately answered by the other 
vessel with one short blast. On waters under the 
Inland Rules of the Road, whistle signals are sig¬ 
nals of intent and assent. As such, each whistle 
signal shall be answered. The first vessel indicates 
her intention by a whistle signal and the other 
vessel answers with a similar signal to indicate that 


she understands and agrees. Thereupon, both ves¬ 
sels alter their course to starboard smartly and keep 
the other vessel to port during the passing. If the 
vessels are meeting, but not on a collision course, 
and would clear each other with plenty of room 
to spare without a change of heading, there would 
be no necessity for either vessel to alter course and 
they would pass port to port or starboard to star¬ 
board simply by exchanging signals. On a starboard- 
to-starboard passing the signals are two short blasts 
(1 second each) given by each vessel. In any meet¬ 
ing situation, if either vessel does not understand 
the other’s signals or feels that the type of passage 
signaled for will be dangerous, she should sound 
the “Danger Signal,” which consists of four or 
more short blasts (1 second each) on her whistle. 
When a danger signal is given or heard, both ves¬ 
sels shall stop and continue to exchange signals 
until they are understood by both vessels before 
either vessel may proceed again. The cause of most 
head-on-collisions between vessels is usually care¬ 
lessness, stubbornness or ignorance of the rules. 

Power Vessels Crossing 

When two power vessels are crossing so as to 
involve a risk of collision, the vessel which has the 
other on her starboard side shall keep out of the 
way of the other. At night, if you see the red light of 
another vessel which is crossing your course, that 
vessel has the right-of-way and you must keep clear. 
In the situation illustrated on page 88, the privi¬ 
leged vessel will sound one short blast (1 second) 
on her whistle to indicate that she has the right- 
of-way and will maintain course and speed. The 
burdened vessel will answer with one short blast 
on her whistle to indicate that she has heard and 
understood the signal and will keep clear. If there 
is any doubt in the mind of the skipper of either 
vessel concerning the safety of the crossing or the 
intentions of the other, either vessel will sound 
the danger signal. When this signal is given or 
heard, both vessels must stop and exchange signals 
until the situation is clear to both skippers. 

Power Vessels Overtaking 

If a vessel is overtaking another, it is burdened 
until the overtaken vessel has been passed and is 
clear. Every vessel coming up with another vessel 
from any direction more than 2 points abaft her 
beam shall be deemed to be an overtaking vessel. 


86 


I BLAST 








5-16 Meeting Situations Under Inland Rules 


No subsequent alteration of the bearing between 
these two vessels shall relieve the overtaking vessel 
of her duty of keeping elear of the overtaken ves¬ 
sel until she is finally past and elear. If the o\'er- 


taking vessel is in doubt whether she is abaft the 
direetion of 2 points abaft the beam of the over¬ 
taken vessel, she shall assume that she is an over¬ 
taking vessel and shall keep elear. At night, if you 


87 






BLAST 



5-17 Crossing Situations Under Inland Rules 


are unable to see the overtaken vessel’s side lights 
(red or green) you should assume that you are 
overtaking and keep clear. During an overtaking 
situation, the privileged vessel (the one being over¬ 
taken) must maintain course and speed. If the 
burdened vessel (the one which is overtaking) 
wishes to pass on the privileged vessel’s starboard 
side, she will sound one short blast (1 second). If 
the privileged vessel agrees to the starboard passage, 
she will answer with one short blast. If the bur¬ 
dened vessel desires to pass on the privileged ves¬ 
sel’s port side, she will sound two short blasts. 
Again, if the privileged vessel agrees to the port 
passage, she will answer with two short blasts. If 
for some reason it is not safe for the overtaking 
vessel to pass on the side signalled for, the privi¬ 
leged vessel will sound the danger signal. In this 
case it is usually not necessary for both vessels to 


stop. They simply continue to exchange signals 
until they have agreement on which side the pass¬ 
age will be made. In no case may a vessel answer 
a signal with a different signal. A signal of one 
short blast must be answered with one short blast 
or the danger signal. It is illegal to answer one blast 
with two, or two blasts with one. This is known 
as a “cross signal.’’ It keeps everyone in doubt con¬ 
cerning the exact intentions of the other vessel and 
is quite dangerous. 

Power Vessels in Narrow Channels and Bends 
In a narrow channel, every power vessel shall 
keep to the right side of the channel if it is safe 
and practicable to do so. When a power vessel is 
nearing a bend in a channel where a vessel ap¬ 
proaching from around the bend would not be seen 
due to cliffs or some other obstruction, Inland 


88 


































• I BLAST 


• I BLAST 




BURDENED VESSEL 




• • 2 BLASTS 


\ 

\ 

\ 

5-18 Overtaking Situations - inland Ruies 


Rules require the vessel to sound one long blast 
at about the time she arrives one-half mile from 
the bend. The duration of time for a long blast is 
not spelled out in the Inland Rules but it is tra¬ 
ditionally a blast of eight to ten seconds duration. 
If this signal is answered by a vessel around the 
bend, both vessels shall immediately give and an¬ 
swer proper signals for meeting and passing. If the 
signal is not answered, the channel is to be consid¬ 
ered clear and the vessel giving the signal may act 
accordingly. 

A vessel leaving her berth shall give the same 
signal as a vessel nearing a bend. 

In narrow channels, a power vessel of 65 feet or 
less in length shall not hamper the safe passage of a 
vessel which can navigate only inside such channel. 
Large deep-draft ships are difficult to maneuver 
and almost impossible to stop in response to 


situations imposed upon them by other vessels 
while they are navigating in a narrow channel. The 
Inland Rules give these larger vessels the right-of- 
way in narrow channels. This is only common 
sense. 

Right-of-Way of Fishing Vessels 
All fishing vessels whieh are fishing with nets, 
lines or trawls are privileged under the Inland 
Rules. Vessels fishing in this manner may be under¬ 
way or at anchor. In any case, it’s dangerous to 
approaeh too elose, so you should keep well elear. 
If you happen to be streaming a jig from astern 
in the hope that you might eatch a fish, this faet 
does not make your boat a fishing vessel under the 
rules. You will be able to tell a fishing vessel by 
the fact that she must display a basket aloft where 
it ean best be seen. 


89 



Sailing Vessel Right-of-Way 

When a power-driven vessel and a sailing vessel 
(under sail only) are proceeding in such directions 
as to involve risk of collision, the power-driven ves¬ 
sel shall keep clear of the sailing vessel except in 
the following situations: 

1. When a sailing vessel is overtaking a power- 
driven vessel, the overtaken vessel (in this 
case the power vessel) has the right-of-way, 
and the sailing vessel shall keep out of the 
way. 

2. A sailing vessel shall keep clear of any ves¬ 
sel engaged in fishing with nets, lines or 
trawls. 

3. In a narrow channel, a sailing vessel shall not 
hamper the safe passage of a power-driven 
vessel which can navigate only inside such 
channel. 

Sailing vessels do not exchange whistle signals 
with each other, nor do they exchange such signals 
with a power vessel. Sailboat skippers should realize 
that, even though power boats are far more ma¬ 
neuverable than sail boats, power boats do not have 
power brakes. It is foolhardy to defy fate by tack¬ 
ing immediately under the bow of a power boat in 
the comforting assurance that you have the right- 
of-way. The power boat’s transmission could fail to 
engage in full reverse and an accident could \’er\' 
likely result. Ha\’ing the right-of-wav is small com¬ 
fort when viewed in the light of a damaged hull 
and possible injury to those aboard. 

Sound Signals Under Inland Rules of the Road 

On Inland waters, sound signals are signals of 
intent and assent. The vessel which signals first 
does so to indicate her proposed action. When the 
signal is answered by the other vessel, she is indi; 
eating that she understands the signal and that she 
agrees with the proposed maneuver bv the other 
vessel and will goxern her own actions accordingly. 
Only after this agreement is reached does either 
vessel change course. 

Sound signals of intent and assent are only ex¬ 
changed between power vessels in sight of one an¬ 
other, and then only when they are close enough 
that a risk of collision might arise. 

All sound signals under Inland Rules are sounded 
on the whistle. Whistle signals have many mean¬ 
ings, such as in a head to head situation. 


One short blast means “I intend to alter my 
course to starboard.” 

Two short blasts mean “I intend to alter my 
course to port.” 

Three short blasts mean '‘My engines are go¬ 
ing at full speed astern.” 

Inland Rules do not define the exact length of 
time for a short blast. These signals are intended 
to be given as “short, rapid blasts.” A period of 
about one second each would appear to suffice. 

When power vessels are approaching each other, 
if either vessel fails to understand the course or in¬ 
tention of the other, from any cause, the vessel 
which is in doubt shall immediately signify the 
same by sounding four or more short rapid blasts 
on the whistle. This is the danger signal (or doubt 
signal) under the Inland Rules. When this signal 
is heard from any vessel which is approaching, both 
^’essels should stop and not proceed until the proper 
signals have been given and understood. 

Conduct in Restricted Visibility Under the Inland 

Rules 

Fog Signals 

All vessels, power or sail, are required by the In¬ 
land Rules to sound proper fog signals in fog, mist, 
falling snow or heavy rain storms, whether by day 
or night. Power vessels sound fog signals on the 
whistle; sail vessels sound fog signals on the fog 
horn. 

A power vessel underway shall sound one pro¬ 
longed blast on the whistle at least ever\' minute. 

Towing vessels sound a series of three blasts in 
succession, namely, one prolonged blast followed 
by two short blasts. A vessel being towed may give 
the same signal. 

A sailing vessel underway shall sound, at inter¬ 
vals of not more than one minute, the following 
signals on the fog horn. 

If on the starboard tack — one blast. 

If on the port tack — two blasts in succession. 

If the wind is abaft the beam — three blasts in 
succession. The rules do not specify the length of 
time for each blast. 


90 


Vessels at Anchor 

When at anchor, a vessel shall ring the bell rap¬ 
idly for at least five seconds at intervals of not more 
than one minute. This is not required of vessels 
not over 65 feet in length when anchored in a 
special anchorage area as specified by the Secretary 
of the Army. 

Speed in Fog 

In conditions of impaired visibility, all vessels 
shall proceed at a moderate speed, having careful 
regard to the existing circumstances and conditions. 
A vessel which hears the fog signal of another ves¬ 
sel apparently ahead of her beam shall, as far as the 
circumstances of the case permit, stop her engines 
and then navigate with caution until danger of col¬ 
lision is over. In conditions of reduced visibilitv, 
the speed shall be governed to a great extent by the 
visible distance. It would appear logical to give one- 
half of the visible distance to the other vessel. 
Under this assumption, any vessel underway in fog 
should be able to stop in half of her visible dis¬ 
tance. This speed, that is a speed at which you 
would be able to stop in half of the visible dis¬ 
tance, would be the maximum speed allowed under 
the rules of good seamanship in the circumstances. 

Great Lakes Rules of the Road 

Power Vessels Meeting in Narrow Channels and 
Rivers 

When two power vessels meet (going in oppo¬ 
site directions) in narrow channels where there is 
a current, the “less maneuverable’' or descending 
vessel has the right-of-way. The privileged vessel 
is required to signal as to which side she plans to 
take, which signal shall be given at about the time 
the two vessels approach to within one-half mile 
of each other. If the privileged vessel elects to pass 
the burdened vessel port-to-port, she shall signal 
this intention by sounding one “distinct blast” on 
the whistle. This shall be promptly answered by 
the burdened vessel by a similar blast on her 
whistle. If the privileged vessel elects to pass star- 
board-to-starboard, she shall sound two distinct 
blasts on her whistle, which shall also be promptly 
answered by the burdened vessel by two distinct 
blasts. These signals could be considered signals 
of intent and understanding in the sense that the 
privileged vessel signals her intention and the 


burdened vessel signals her understanding of the 
privileged vessel’s intentions. 

In all channels of less than 500 feet in width, 
when power vessels proceeding in opposite direc¬ 
tions are about to meet, both vessels shall slow 
down to a moderate speed, according to the circum¬ 
stances. 

A power or sail vessel of 65 feet or less in length 
shall not hamper the safe passage of a vessel which 
can navigate only inside that channel. 

Vessels Overtaking in Narrow Channels 

In channels less than 500 feet in width, the rules 
do not permit one vessel to overtake and pass an¬ 
other unless the overtaken vessel is disabled or 
signals her permission for the overtaking vessel to 
pass. If the overtaking vessel desires to pass the 
overtaken vessel’s starboard side she shall signal by 
sounding one distinct blast on the whistle. If the 
overtaken vessel agrees to the starboard passing, she 
shall answer with one distinct blast. If the over¬ 
taking vessel desires to pass the overtaken vessel’s 
port side, she shall signal by sounding two distinct 
blasts on the whistle. If the overtaken vessel agrees 
to the port passing, she shall answer with two dis¬ 
tinct blasts. If the overtaken vessel decides that 
either passing is unsafe, she shall answer by sound¬ 
ing several short and rapid blasts on the whistle, 
not less than five. In this case, the overtaking vessel 
may not pass until permission has been received 
from the overtaken vessel by a properly answered 
whistle signal. 

Special Rules for the St. Mary's River 

Special anchorage and navigation requirements 
for the St. Mary’s River in Michigan supplement 
the general rules and regulations applicable to 
vessels on the Great Lakes. These are set forth in 
a separate section of the Great Lakes Pilot Rules 
(contained in Coast Guard publication CG-172.) 
and will not be enumerated here. 

Power Vessels Meeting End-on 

When two power vessels are meeting end-on or 
head-on so as to involve risk of collision, neither 
vessel shall have the right of way and each shall 
sound one distinct blast on the whistle and shall 
alter her course to starboard so that each shall pass 
on the port side of the other. 

If the vessels are passing in opposite directions 


91 


and an alteration of course will not be required in 
order to pass safely, whistle signals indicating 
course must be given and answered. If the vessels 
will pass port-tO'port, each shall sound one distinct 
blast on the whistle. If they will pass starboard-to- 
starboard, each shall sound two distinct blasts on 
the whistle. These signals shall be sounded as the 
vessels approach within one-half mile of each other. 

Power Vessels Crossing 

When two power vessels are crossing so as to 
involve risk of collision, the vessel which has the 
other on her starboard side shall keep out of the 
way of the other. The vessel having the right of 
way shall blow one distinct blast on the whistle as 
a signal of her intention to cross the bow of the 
other, holding her course and speed, which signal 
shall be promptly answered by the other vessel by 
one distinct blast on the whistle as a signal of her 
intention to direct her course to starboard so as to 


cross the stern of the other vessel or otherwise 
keep clear. If for some reason it is not possible for 
both vessels to comply with each other’s signals, 
this shall be made apparent by blowing the danger 
signal (five short rapid blasts) and both vessels 
shall stop, engines backed if necessary, until signals 
for passing with safety are made and understood. 

Power Vessels Overtaking 

When one power vessel desires to overtake an¬ 
other by passing the overtaken vessel’s starboard 
side, she shall sound one distinct blast on the 
whistle to signal this desire and, if the overtaken 
vessel answers with one blast, she shall direct her 
course to starboard and pass the other vessel. If 
the overtaking vessel desires to pass the overtaken 
vessel’s port side, she shall sound two distinct blasts 
and, if the overtaken vessel answers with two blasts, 
she shall direct her course to port and pass the 
other vessel. If the vessel ahead does not think it 




5-20 Crossing Situation 5-21 Overtaking Situation 

92 









safe for the vessel astern to pass at that time, she 
shall immediately sound the danger signal of several 
short and rapid blasts on the whistle, not less than 
five. The vessel astern shall not attempt to pass 
until the overtaken vessel deems it safe to do so 
and signifies this by a properly answered whistle 
signal. 

Sailing Vessel Right-of-Way 

When a steam vessel and a sailing vessel (under 
sail alone) are proceeding in such directions as to 
involve risk of collision, the power vessel shall keep 
out of the way of the sailing vessel except in the 
following situations: 

1. When a sailing vessel is overtaking a power 
vessel, the overtaken vessel has the right-of- 
way and the sailing vessel shall keep out of 
the way 

2. In a narrow channel, a sailing vessel shall 
not hamper the safe passage of a power-driven 
vessel which can navigate only inside such 
channel. 

Sailing vessels do not exchange whistle signals 
with each other, nor do they exchange such signals 
with power vessels. Sailboat skippers should realize 
that, even though power boats are far more maneu¬ 
verable than sail vessels, power boats do not have 
power brakes. It is foolhardy to defy fate by tacking 
immediately under the bow of a power vessel in the 
comforting assurance that you have the right-of- 
way. The power vessel's transmission could fail to 
engage in full reverse and an accident could very' 
likely result. Having the right-of-way is small com¬ 
fort when viewed in the light of a damaged hull 
and possible injury to those aboard. 

Sound Signals 

On the Great Lakes, sound signals are given in 
all weathers, regardless of visibility. Every power 
vessel which receives a signal shall promptly answer 
such signal with the same signal or sound the 
danger signal. Passing signals are required to be 
given and answered regardless of whether or not a 
change of course is to be made. Signals must be 
sounded at about the time the vessels are within 
one-half mile of one another. “Cross signals” such 
as answering one blast with two, or two blasts with 
one, are forbidden under the rules. If a signal is 
not understood, or if the other vessel's actions are 


not understood or deemed unsafe, the danger 
signal should be sounded and both vessels should 
observe the rule applying thereto. 

These signals shall be sounded on the whistle, 
and are as follows: 

One distinct blast—“I am altering my course 
to starboard.” 

Two distinct blasts—“I am altering my course 
to port.” 

Five or more rapid blasts—The danger signal. 

One long blast of at least 8 seconds—Used by 
a vessel within one-half mile of a bend in a 
channel, or by a vessel leaving her berth. 

Note: Under Great Lakes Rules, “distinct 
blasts” should not be confused with “short blasts” 
of one second's duration. The one second blast is 
considered too short and, although the length of 
the blast is not specified, a blast of from two to 
three seconds would appear to satisfy the require¬ 
ments. 

Conduct in Restricted Visibility 
Fog Signals 

In restricted visibility, whether by day or night, 
fog signals shall be sounded on the whistle as 
follows: 

A power vessel underway shall sound three suc¬ 
cessive distinct blasts on the whistle at intervals of 
not more than one minute. 

A vessel in tow shall, at intervals of one minute, 
sound “four bells” on the bell in the same manner 
as “four bells” is struck indicating time. Strike the 
bell twice in quick succession, wait a short interval, 
and strike the bell twice again in quick succession. 

A sailing vessel underway shall sound, at interv’als 
of not more than one minute, the following signals 
on the fog horn: 

If on the starboard tack with wind forward of 
the beam—one blast 

If on the port tack with wind forward of the 
beam—two blasts 

If the wind is abaft the beam on either side- 
three blasts 

The rules do not describe the length of these 
blasts. 

Vessels at Anchor 

When at anchor or aground in or near a channel 


93 


or fairway, a vessel shall ring the bell rapidly for 
three to five seconds at intervals of not more than 
two minutes. In addition, such vessel shall sound 
one short blast, two long blasts and one short blast 
in quick succession on the whistle at intervals of 
not more then three minutes. 

Speed in Fog 

Every vessel shall, in thick weather by reason of 
fog, mist, falling snow, heavy rain or other causes, 
proceed at a moderate speed. If a fog signal of an¬ 
other vessel is heard from a direction apparently 
not more than four points from right ahead, the 
vessel hearing such signal shall at once reduce speed 
to bare steerageway and navigate with caution until 
the vessels have passed one another. In reduced 
visibility, it would appear logical to give one-half 
of the visible distance to the other vessel. Under 
this assumption, if two vessels are coming directly 
at one another, each would be able to stop in half 
of the visible distance. “Moderate speed” under 
Great Lakes Rules would appear to be satisfied 
under these conditions. 

Western Rivers Rules of the Road 

Power Vessels Meeting End-on 

When two power vessels are meeting end-on, or 
nearly so, so as to involve risk of collision, it shall 
be the duty of each to alter course to starboard 
sufficiently to pass each on the port side of the 
other, if this can be done in safety. This maneuver 
shall require an exchange of one-blast whistle signals 
when the vessels are no less than one-half mile 
apart. Either vessel may blow the first signal and 
the other vessel shall promptly answer. 

Power Vessels Meeting at the Confluence of two 
Rivers 

When two power vessels meet at the confluence 
of two rivers, the vessel which has the other to 
port shall give the first signal. In no case shall the 
vessels attempt to pass each other until there has 
been a thorough understanding as to the side each 
vessel shall take. 

Power Vessels Meeting in Narrow Channels or 
Rivers 

When an ascending vessel is approaching a 
descending vessel on a river, the ascending vessel 
shall give the first signal by one blast of the whistle 


if she desires to pass on the port side of the de¬ 
scending vessel. The ascending vessel shall give two 
blasts if she desires to pass on the starboard side 
of the descending vessel. These signals shall be 
promptly answered by the descending vessel if the 
maneuver is considered safe. Each shall be gov¬ 
erned accordingly. If the descending vessel deems 
it dangerous to do so, she shall signify the fact by 
giving the danger signal, a series of rapid blasts 
(not less than four) on the whistle. It then shall 
be the duty of the ascending vessel to answer by a 
similar danger signal. Engines of both vessels shall 
then be stopped and backed if necessary until 
signals for passing are given, answered and under¬ 
stood, with the descending vessel having the right- 
of-way. After the danger signals have been mutually 
given, the descending vessel must then indicate, 
by whistle, the side which she desires for passing 
and the ascending vessel shall govern herself accord¬ 
ingly. 

Power Vessels Crossing 

When power vessels are crossing so as to involve 
risk of collision, the vessel on the port side of the 
other shall keep out of the way of the other. Both 
vessels shall exchange one-blast signals (either 
blowing first) to signify intentions to comply with 
the Rules. 

If conditions are such as to prevent compliance 
with these sisals, the misunderstanding or objec¬ 
tion shall be made apparent by the danger signal, 
four or more short and rapid blasts of the whistle, 
and both vessels shall be stopped and backed if 
necessary until signals for passing in safety are 
given, answered and understood. 

Every steam vessel when approaching another 
vessel so as to involve risk of collision shall slacken 
her speed, or, if necessary, stop and reverse. 

Power Vessels Overtaking 

Any vessel overtaking another shall keep out of 
the way of the overtaken vessel, until she is past 
and clear, and no subsequent altering of course 
shall make the overtaken vessel a crossing vessel. 
A vessel being overtaken shall in no way attempt 
to cross the bow or the head of the tow of an 
overtaking vessel. 

A vessel approaching from the stern shall be con¬ 
sidered to be an overtaking vessel and, if desiring 


94 


to pass on the overtaken vessel’s starboard side, 
shall indicate her intentions by one blast on the 
whistle. If she desires to pass on the port side, she 
shall indicate her intentions by two blasts on the 
whistle. In no case shall she attempt to pass until 
the overtaken vessel has answered her signals to 
show she understands and that the way ahead is 
clear. If the overtaken vessel answers the passing 
request with a danger signal, the o\'ertaking vessel 
shall blow acknowledgement (the danger signal) 
and wait for the overtaken vessel to signal a safe 
side. 

Vessel Leaving a Berth or Anchorage 

A \cssel leaving her berth or anchorage shall 
give three distinct blasts on her whistle and ap¬ 
proaching vessels shall take care to ascertain her 
course and, at that time, exchange the proper sig¬ 
nals for passing. Keep in mind that this is a special 
circumstance covered by the General Prudential 
Rule (Rule 25) and the Rule of Good Seamanship 
(Rule 26) until the undocking vessel has cleared 
the dock and set her course. 

Bower Vessels in River Bends 

Whenever a power vessel ascending or descend¬ 
ing a river approaches a bend she shall, when the 
head of her tow is 600 yards from such bend, give 
three distinct blasts on the whistle, which shall be 
answered by vessels approaching from the other 
side of the bend. Upon hearing such an answer, 
she shall proceed with caution until the vessels 
are in sight of each other and the proper signals 
for passing have been exchanged. 

Special circumstances may render a departure 
from these rules necessary to avoid immediate 
danger and in such case neither vessel shall have 
the right-of-way and both shall navigate with 
caution until such danger is over. 

Special Whistle Light 

Most vessels shall carry, in addition to regular 
running lights, an amber light high enough above 
the pilot house to have an uninterrupted view from 
approaching vessels, which will light in conjunction 
with the blowing of the whistle. 

Special Caution for Small Craft 

In presenting this material concerning Rules of 


the Road for Western Rivers, much information 
has been necessarily omitted principally because of 
the fact that great emphasis is placed on rules gov¬ 
erning commercial craft. This omission in no way 
implies that the operators of pleasure vessels should 
attempt to play “Rules of the Road” with heavily 
laden vessels or large tows and force their will upon 
such commercial craft, regardless of which vessel 
mav have the right-of-way. 

Burden and Privilege on Western Rivers 

On Western Rivers, burdened vessels are as 
follows: 

Any vessel (sail or power) which is overtaking 
another. 

Any power vessel crossing a river. 

Any power vessel approaching another from the 
other vessel’s port side. 

Any ascending power vessel when meeting an¬ 
other N’essel in a narrow channel or confined space 
such as a bridge; the ascending vessel shall hold 
her position at slow or stop, permitting the descend¬ 
ing vessel a clear passage. (It’s easier to hold a 
vessel against the current.) Vessels ascending a riv¬ 
er will, unless a clear understanding by an exchange 
of whistle signals is reached, give the choice of pass¬ 
ing side to the descending vessel. 

Any vessel (sail or power) of 65 feet or less in 
length that can maneuver easily shall not hamper 
the passage of a large vessel or vessel with tow that 
is ascending or descending a river. 

A sailing \'essel does not have the right to hamper 
the safe passage of a large vessel or vessel with 
tow that is ascending or descending a river. 

Sound Signals 

On the Western Rivers, the following sound 
signals shall be used: 

One blast—“I intend to alter my course to 
starboard.” 

Two blasts—“I intend to alter my course to 
port.” 

Note: The duration of the blasts is not specified. 
These are signals of intent and assent. Each signal 


95 


must be answered with a similar signal or the 
danger signal. 

However, a vessel descending a river and meeting 
another vessel may sound the danger signal (four 
or more short rapid blasts) in reply to an ascending 
vessel’s one or two-blast signal and then indicate 
by a whistle signal on which side she wishes to 
pass. 

Four or more short, rapid blasts—The danger 
signal. Any vessel, upon hearing the danger signal, 
shall make all efforts to hold her position and not 
proceed until she has a clear understanding of what 
danger exists, and act accordingly. 

Vessels approaching a bend in a river shall, when 
600 yards distant, sound three distinct blasts on 
the whistle, to be answered by any other vessel 
approaching from the other direction. 






Conduct in Restricted Visibility 
Fog Signals 

In fog, mist, falling snow or heavy rainstorm or 
any other condition of restricted visibility, whether 
by day or night, the fog signals to be used shall be 
as follows: 

A vessel underway and towing another vessel or 
vessels shall sound at intervals of not more than 
one minute, three distinct blasts of the whistle of 
approximate equal length. 

A vessel underway without a tow shall sound at 
intervals of not more than one minute, three blasts 
of the whistle, the first two of equal length and the 
last blast to be longer (two short, 1 long). 

A vessel with or without a tow, lying to, meaning 
to hold her position near or against the bank by 
using her engines, or temporarily moored to the 


^ I BLAST 


WESTERN RIVERS RULES. 



MEETING HEAD-ON. BOTH VESSELS 
SOUND ONE BLAST AND PASS TO 
PORT 



IN NARROW CHANNELS. ASCENDING 
VESSEL SOUNDS ONE BLAST IF SHE 
DESIRES TO PASS ON PORT SIDE OF 
DESCENDING VESSEL* DESCENDING 
VESSEL ANSWERS 



IN NARROW CHANNELS. ASCENDING 
VESSEL SOUNDS TWO BLASTS IF SHE 
DESIRES TO PASS ON STARBOARD 
SIDE OF DESCENDING VESSEL DES¬ 
CENDING VESSEL ANSWERS. 


5-22 Meeting Situations 



5-23 Crossing Situation 


96 


5-24 Overtaking Situation 










WIND 


WIND 



5-25 International Rules for Sailboats 

97 

















bank, when a fog signal or other sound indicating 
the approach of another vessel is heard shall, if 
lying to the right descending bank, give one tap on 
her bell to indicate her presence, at intervals of 
not more than one minute. If lying to the left 
decending bank, she shall give two taps on her bell, 
also at intervals of not more than one minute. 
These signals shall be continued until the passing 
vessel has passed and is clear. Right and left de¬ 
scending bank are determined by facing down¬ 
stream. 

Vessels at Anchor 

A vessel at anchor shall, at intervals of not more 
than one minute, ring the bell rapidly for about 
five seconds. Vessels in special anchorages, as desig¬ 
nated by the Secretary' of the Army, are not re¬ 
quired to ring bells. 

Speed in Fog 

A vessel underway, under restricted visibility, 
shall proceed at a moderate speed and, upon hearing 
the fog signal of another vessel apparently ahead of 
her beam, shall at once reduce her speed to bare 
steerageway and navigate with extreme caution 
until the vessels have passed each other. 


Rules of the Road for Sailing Vessels 

Introduction 

Sailing vessels do not indicate their course or 
intended action in passing a vessel of any type by a 
whistle signal. The right-of-way between two sailing 
\cssels is determined solely by the direction of the 
wind in reference to the vessels’ courses. 

When two sailing vessels approach one another 
so as to involve risk of collision, one of them shall 
keep clear of the other. The vessel required to 
keep clear is the burdened vessel, and the other the 
pri\'ileged vessel which is required to hold her 
course and speed. Sailing vessels (under sail alone) 
liaxe the right-of-way over power-driven vessels 
except: (1) when the sailing vessel is overtaking a 
power vessel, or (2) in a narrow channel where a 
sailing vessel shall not have the right to hamper 
the safe passage of any vessel which can navigate 
safely only within such channel, and (3) sailing 
vessels shall keep clear of any vessels engaged in 
fishing with nets, lines or trawls. 

International Rules for Sailing Vessels 

\\Ten two sailing vessels are approaching one 
another so as to involve risk of collision, one of 


WIND WIND WIND 



5-26 International Rules for Sailboats 


98 










them shall keep out of the way of the other as 
follows: 

1. When each has the wind on a different side, 
the vessel which has the wind to the port 
side shall keep out of the way of the other. 

2. When both have the wind on the same side, 
the vessel which is to windward shall keep 
out of the way of the vessel which is to 
leeward. 

3. For the purposes of these rules the windward 
side shall be deemed to be the side opposite 
to that on which the mainsail is carried. On 
square-rigged vessels, it shall be deemed to be 
the side opposite to that on which the largest 
fore-and-aft sail is carried. 

Inland, Great Lakes and Western Rivers Rules 
for Sailing Vessels 

When two sailing vessels are approaching one 
another so as to involve risk of collision, one of 


them shall keep out of the way of the other as 
follows: 

1. A vessel which is running free shall keep out 
of the way of a vessel that is close hauled. 

2. A vessel which is close hauled on the port 
tack shall keep clear of a vessel which is close 
hauled on the starboard tack. 

3. When both vessels are running free, with the 
wind on different sides, the vessel which has 
the wind on the port side shall keep out of 
the way of the other. 

4. When both vessels are running free with the 
wind on the same side, the vessel which is 
to windward shall keep out of the way of the 
vessel which is to leeward. 

5. A vessel which has the wind aft shall keep 
out of the way of the other vessel. Note: 
This rule does not apply to the Great Lakes. 


WIND 


WIND 


WIND 


5-27 Inland, Great Lakes and Western Rivers Rules for Sailing Vessels. 



WIND 


WIND 


privileged 


99 















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CHAPTER 6 


Aids to Navigation 


Introduction 

Along the coasts and navigable waters of the 
United States and its possessions, there are thou¬ 
sands of devices to give a mariner his exact position 
at all times, in any weather, in relation to the land 
and to hidden dangers. These devices range from 
steel and concrete structures, such as buoys and 
lighthouses, to invisible beacons of an electronic 
nature such as radiobeacons and LORAN. The}’ 
are all designed for one purpose — aiding seamen. 

^ Aids to navigation assist mariners in making land¬ 
falls when approaching from overseas, mark isolated 
dangers, make it possible for vessels to follow the 
natural and improved channels, and provide a con¬ 
tinuous chain of charted marks for coastal piloting. 
As all aids to navigation serve the same general pur¬ 
pose, such structural differences as those between 
an unlighted buoy and a lightship, or a lighthouse 
and a radiobeacon, are solely for the purpose of 
meeting the conditions and requirements for the 
particular location at which the aid is to be estab¬ 
lished. 

All aids to navigation (except private aids) in 
the waters over which the United States has juris¬ 
diction are designed, built and maintained by the 
United States Coast Guard. It is a tremendous job. 
There are more than 40,000 aids to navigation in 
U.S. waters alone. This responsibility has been exe¬ 
cuted well; and todav the United States has the 
best svstem of aids to navigation in the world. 

The Lateral System 

The waters of the United States are marked for 
safe navigation by the lateral system of buoyage. 
This system employs a simple arrangement of col¬ 


ors, shapes, numbers and light characteristics to 
show the side on which a buoy should be passed 
when proceeding in a given direction. The charac¬ 
teristics are determined by the position of the buoy 
with respect to the navigable channels as the chan¬ 
nels are entered from seaward toward the head of 
navigation. 

As all channels do not lead from seaward, arbi¬ 
trary assumptions must at times be made in order 
that the system may be consistently applied. The 
characteristics of buoys are based on the assump¬ 
tion that proceeding in a southerly direction along 
the Atlantic coast, in a northerly and westerly di¬ 
rection along the Gulf coast, in a northerly direc¬ 
tion on the Pacific coast, and in a westerly and 
norther!}' direction on the Great Lakes (except 
Lake Michigan) and in a southerly direction in 
Lake Michigan is proceeding from seaward. On the 
Intracoastal Waterway, proceeding in a general 
southerly direction along the Atlantic coast, and in a 
general westerly direction along the Gulf coast is 
considered as proceeding from seaward. On the 



6-1 Arbitrary Direction Under Lateral System 


101 


Mississippi and Ohio Rivers and their tributaries, 
the aids to navigation characteristics are deter¬ 
mined as proceeding from sea towards the head of 
navigation although local terminolgy describes “left 
bank” and “right bank” as proceeding with the 
flow of the river. 

In addition to the lateral system of buoyage, sev¬ 
eral special purpose buoyage characteristics, which 
have no lateral significance, are utilized to mark 
dredging areas, quarantine areas, fish net areas, an¬ 
chorages, race courses, experiments or tests. 

Buoys 

The primary function of buoys is to warn the 
mariner of some danger, some obstruction or change 
in the contours of the sea bottom, or to delineate 
channels leading to various points, so that he may 
avoid dangers and continue his course safely. The 
utmost advantage is obtained from buoys when they 
are considered as marking definitely identified spots, 
for if a mariner knows his precise location at the 
moment and is properly equipped with charts, he 
can plot a safe course on which to proceed. Such 
features as size, shape, coloring, numbering and sig¬ 
naling equipment of buoys are but means to these 
ends of warning, guiding and orienting the naviga¬ 
tor. However, a word of caution should be included 
here concerning buoys and other floating aids to 



6-2 Placing Aid to Navigation on Station by 
Coast Guard Buoy Tender 


navigation. Buoys should not be regarded as immov¬ 
able objects. They may be missing, adrift, or off the 
charted position due to heavy storm, unusual tides, 
ice, and collisions. Even buoys that are on station 
should be passed a reasonable distance off, since 
they may be necessarily located close to the shoals 
they mark. Therefore, boatmen should not rely 
completely upon the position or operation of float¬ 
ing aids to navigation, but should utilize bearings 
toward fixed objects or aids to navigation on shore 
whenever possible. The lights on lighted buoys may 
be extinguished, or sound-producing devices on 
sound buoys may not function. Buoys fitted with 
bells, gongs or whistles which are activated by wave 
action do not produce sounds at regular intervals. 
Principally for this reason, their positive identifica¬ 
tion is not always possible. 

Coloring of Buoys 

All buoys are painted distinctive colors to indi¬ 
cate their purpose or, in the lateral system, the side 
on which they should be passed. The meaning of 
lateral system buoys, when proceeding from sea¬ 
ward, as indicated by their colors, are as follows: 

BLACK BUOYS mark the left side of the chan¬ 
nel as you proceed from seaward. Black buoys are 
sometimes used to mark wrecks or obstructions 
in the channel. In this case, these buoys must be 
kept on the port side of your vessel as you proceed 
from seaward. 

RED BUOYS mark the right side of the channel 
as you proceed from seaward. Red buoys are also 
used to mark wrecks or obstructions in the channel. 
WTien red buoys are used in this manner they must 
be kept on the starboard side of vour vessel as you 
proceed from seaward. 

RED AND BLACK HORIZONTALLY 
BANDED BUOYS mark junctions in the channel, 
or wrecks or obstructions which may be passed on 
either side as you travel in the direction previoush' 
determined as “proceeding from seaward.” If the 
topmost band is black, the preferred channel will 
be followed by keeping the buoy on the port side 
of the vessel. If the topmost band is red, the pre¬ 
ferred channel will be followed by keeping the buoy 
on the starboard side of the vessel. Note: When 
approaching these red and black horizontally 
banded buoys from the opposite direction, as pro- 


102 


ceeding toward seaward, it may not be possible to 
pass on either side of these buoys, and the ehart 
should always be consulted. 



6-3 Vertically and Horizontally Banded Buoys 

BLACK AND WHITE VERTICALLY STRIPED 
BUOYS mark the fairway or midchannel. 



mark the fairway or mid-channel. 


6-4 Lateral System. 

The meaning of special purpose buoys is indi¬ 
cated by their colors as follows: 

WHITE BUOYS mark anchorage areas. 

YELLOW BUOYS mark quarantine anchorage 
areas. 

WHITE BUOYS WTTH GREEN TOPS arc 
used in connection with dredging and sur\ey 
operations. 

WHITE AND BLACK ALTERNATE HORI¬ 
ZONTALLY BANDED BUOYS mark fish 
net areas. 

WHITE AND INTERNATIONAL ORANGE 
BUOYS ALTERNATELY BANDED, EI¬ 


THER HORIZONTALLY OR VERTI¬ 
CALLY, are for special purposes to which 
neither the lateral-system colors nor the special- 
purpose colors apply. 

YELLOW AND BLACK VERTICALLY 
STRIPED BUOYS are used for seadrome 
markings and ha\e no marine significance. 

Shapes of Buoys 

Buoys have many shapes, from simple spars to 
complicated structures. Some buoys have lights on 
them. Lighted buo^'s have no shape significance but 
almost all lateral unlighted buoys do have shape sig¬ 
nificance. Buoys which have shape significance 
are usually painted solid-red or solid-black. 

NUN BUOYS arc conical in shape, and are 
painted solid red. As mentioned previously, they 
indicate the right hand side of the channel upon 
entering from seaward. 



6-5 Nun Buoy 


CAN BUOYS are cylindrical in shape and are 
painted solid-black. These indicate the left side of 
the channel upon entering from seaward. 

On all other buoys, the shape is of no signifi¬ 
cance. Sometimes buoys of conical or cylindrical 
shape are used with a paint pattern other than 
solid-red or solid-black. These could be horizon¬ 
tally banded (red and black) or \'ertically striped 


103 







6-6 Can Buoy 

(white and black). In these instances, the paint 
color pattern is significant, while the shape of the 
buoy is not. 

Other buoys (other than conical or cylindrical 
shaped) may be painted solid-red or solid-black 
and used in the place of a nun or can buoy when 
it is desired to direct special attention to the aid. 

LIGHTED BUOYS, SOUND BUOYS AND 
SPAR BUOYS are not differentiated by shape to 
indicate the side on which they should be passed. 
Their purpose is indicated by color, number, and 
light characteristics. 

Numbering of Buoys 

Most buoys are given numbers, letters or com¬ 
binations of numbers and letters which are painted 
conspicuously upon them. These markings facilitate 
the identification and location of the buoys on the 
charts. 

All solid colored red or black buoys, except those 
in the Mississippi River Aids to Navigation Sys¬ 
tem, are given numbers or combinations of num¬ 
bers and letters. Other colored buoys may be given 
letters. Numbers increase from seaward and are 
kept in approximate sequence on both sides of the 
channel by omitting numbers where required. Odd 
numbers are used only on solid-black buoys. Even 
numbers are used only on solid-red buovs. Num¬ 
bers followed by letters are used on solid-colored 
red or black buoys when a letter is required so as 
not to disturb the sequence of numbering, or on 
important buoys, particularly those marking iso¬ 
lated offshore dangers. An example of the latter 
case would be a buov marked “2 DR,” in which 


instance the number has the usual significance, 
while the letters “DR” indicate the place as Dux- 
bury Reef. Letters without numbers are applied 
in some cases to black and white vertically striped 
buoys, red and black horizontally banded buoys, 
solid-yellow buoys, and other buoys not solid col¬ 
ored red or black. 

In the Mississippi River System, unlighted buoys 
are not numbered, while the numbers on lighted 
buovs have no lateral significance, but indicate 
the number of miles from a designated point. 

Lighted Buoys 

Buoys of special importance must be seen at 
night, therefore they are equipped with lights. 
Lighted buoys may be used in place of either can 
or nun buoys. Lights are never used on can or nun 
buoys. 

Lights and Reflectors 

Red lights on buoys are used only on red buoys 
and red and black horizontally banded buoys with 
the topmost band red. Green lights on buoys are 
used only on black buoys or red and black hori- 
zontallv banded buoys with the topmost band 
black. White lights on buoys are used on any color 
buoy. No special significance is attached to a white 
light on a buoy, the purpose of the buoy being indi¬ 
cated bv its color, number, or its light phase char¬ 
acteristic. 

Many unlighted buoys are fitted with optical re¬ 
flectors. These greatly facilitate the locating of the 
buovs at night bv means of a searchlight. Optical 
reflectors may be white, red or green, and have the 
same significance as lights of these colors. In addi¬ 
tion, most modern buoys have corner radar reflec¬ 
tors designed into the superstructure to improve 
the radar response. 

Light Phase Characteristics 

Lights on red buoys or black buoys will always 
be regularly flashing or regularlv occulting. A flash¬ 
ing light flashes at a rate of 30 or less flashes per 
minute. An oeculting light, on the other hand, is 
a steady light that is interrupted by short eclipses 
of darkness. The time the light is “on” is more 
than the time it is “off.” One easy method of re¬ 
membering the difference between a flashing light 


104 


and an occulting light is that a flashing light 
‘‘blinks on” while an occulting light “blinks off.” 
When it is desired that a flashing light have a dis¬ 
tinct cautionary significance, as at sharp turns or 
sudden constrictions in the channel, or to mark 
wrecks or dangerous obstructions which can be 
passed safely on one side only, the frequency of 
flashes will be at a rate of 60 or more per minute. 
This frequency of flashes is known as a quick flash¬ 
ing light. 

Lights on red and black horizontally banded 
buoys will always show a series of quick flashes 
(60 or more per minute) interrupted by eclipses 
about eight times per minute. This frequency of 
flashes is known as an interrupted quick flashing 
light. These buoys are placed at points where it is 
desired to indicate junctions in the channel, or 
wrecks or obstructions which may be passed on 
either side. 

Lights on black and white vertically striped buoys 
consist of a short flash followed by a long flash, 
providing the letter “A” of the Morse Code. The 
series (one short and one long flash) recurs at the 
rate of about eight per minute. These buoys are 
placed at points where it is desired to indicate the 
midchannel or fairway. These lights are always 
white. 


6-7 Characteristic Light Phases 



Most lighted buoys are equipped with a special 
device which automatically controls the electric cur¬ 
rent to the light. This device causes the light to 
operate during the hours of darkness and to be ex¬ 
tinguished during the daylight hours. These devices 
are not of equal sensitivity, therefore all lights do 


not come on or go off at the same time. Mariners 
should ensure correct identification of aids during 
twilight periods when some lighted aids to naviga¬ 
tion are on while others are not. 

Daybeacons (Daymarks) 

There are many aids to navigation which are not 
lighted. Structures (not buoys) of this type are 
called daybeacons. They vary greatly in design and 
construction, depending upon their location, and 
the distance from which they must be seen. Day¬ 
beacons are colored, as are lighthouses, to distin¬ 
guish them from their surroundings and to provide 
a means of identification. Daybeacons marking the 
sides of channels are colored and numbered in the 
same manner as buoys and minor light structures; 
red indicating the right side entering and black the 
left side entering. Red day beacons will carry an 
even number within a red triangle or daymark and 
black daybeacons will carrv an odd number within 
a black square daymark. Many daymarks are also 
fitted with optical reflectors to facilitate locating 
them at night by means of a searchlight. 



6-8 Single Pile Light with Daymark 
Sound Buoys 

Buoys equipped with sound signals do not lose 
their effectiveness during low visibility. Impor¬ 
tant buovs mav be bell buoys, gong buoys, whistle 
buovs or horn buovs. Each type has an easily recog¬ 
nizable sound. Bell buoys have four clappers hung 
looselv about the bell so that even a slight pitching 
of the buoy causes the bell to ring. Gong buoys 
differ from bell buoys in that three or four gongs 
of different tones, each with a separate clapper, are 


105 


rung in random order by the motion of the buoy 
in the sea. These signals are actuated by the motion 
of the sea, so one should be cautioned that they 
do not emit regular signal characteristics and, when 
the sea is calm, may emit no sound signals at all. 
Since the air used in whistle buoys is captured and 
compressed by the rising and falling of the buoy 
in the sea, these whistle buoys are used principally 
in open and exposed places where sufficient ground 
swell normally exists to operate the mechanism. 
A type of sound buoy in which a horn and some¬ 
times a bell is sounded at regular intervals by me¬ 
chanical means is also used. 



6-9 Lighted, Radar Reflector, Bell Buoy 


The Intracoastai Waterway System 

The Intracoastai Waterway, to which is applied 
the system of marking about to be described, is that 
comparatively shallow channel lying parallel to and 
extending along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts 
from New Jersey to the Mexican border. This spe¬ 
cial marking system is applied to the so-called “in¬ 
side route” proper, and to those portions of all 
connecting waterways which must be crossed or 
followed in order to make a continuous passage. 

All buoys, daybeacons and light structures mark¬ 
ing the Intracoastai Waterway have some portion 
of them painted yellow. This is the distinctive col¬ 
oring adopted for the waterway. Lighted buoys have 
a yellow band at the top. Unlighted buoys have a 
yellow band at approximated the midsection. Day- 
marks have a yellow border and pointers have a 
yellow band at the top. Daymarks and pointers 


are usually mounted on single piles. Below the yel¬ 
low band on a pointer, the field is either red or 
black, according to the side of the channel on which 
it is located. When the pile carries a daymark (or 
daybeacon), the daymark is either a black square 
with a yellow border or a red triangle with a yellow 
border depending on whether the pile is on the port 
hand or on the starboard hand, as the navigator 
proceeds southerly along the East Coast or wes¬ 
terly along the Gulf Coast channels of the Intra¬ 
coastai Waterway. 

The coloring and numbering of buoys and Day- 
marks, and the color of lights on buoys and on 
light structures is on the same lateral system as 
that prevailing in other waterways. The basic rule 
is that RED BUOYS and Daymarks are on the 
right-hand side of the channel when proceeding 
from New Jersey toward Mexico, and BLACK 
BUOYS and Daymarks are on the left-hand side 
of the channel when proceeding in the same direc¬ 
tion. This rule is applied in a uniform manner from 
one end of the Intracoastai Waterway to the other, 
regardless of the widely differing compass headings 
of the manv sections, and the fact that rivers and 
other waterw^avs marked on the seacoast system 
are sometimes followed. When the Intracoastai 
Waterwav route coincides with another waterway, 
such as a river on which aids to navigation are 
marked from the sea to the head of navigation 
according to the lateral system of buoyage, special 
markings are used consisting of yellow squares or 
vellow triangles painted on a conspicuous part 
of such dual-purpose aids to navigation. A yellow 
triangle on an aid to navigation indicates that the 
aid must be left on the starboard side, and a yellow 
square on an aid indicates that it must be left on 
the port side, regardless of the color or number 
of such aid. when traversing the Intracoastai Water- 
wa\^ route from north to south on the Atlantic 
coast and from east to west along the Gulf coast. 

Numbering of Intracoastai Waterway aids fol¬ 
lows the basic rule, numbers increasing from New 
Jersey to Mexico. Aids are numbered in groups, 
usually not exceeding 200; numbering begins again 
at “ 1 ” at certain natural dividing points. Lights on 
buoys follow the standard system of red or white 
lights on red buoys, or green or white lights on 
black buoys. The color of the lights on fixed 


106 





structures also follow this general rule. Range 
lights, not being lateral markers, may be any of the 
three standard colors. 


Western Rivers System 

Western Rivers system includes the waters of 
the Mississippi River between its source and the 
Huey P. Long Bridge and all of the tributaries 
emptying thereinto and their tributaries, and that 
part of the Atchafalaya River above its junction 
with Plaquemine—Morgan City alternate waterway, 
and the Red River of the North. 

Aids to Navigation on all of the above rivers are 
arranged in a numerical order. Each aid bears a 
number identical to the mileage of the stream at 
that point, as determined from the latest chart. 
The mileage of the aid is determined from a refer¬ 
ence point, generally marked zero. This point may 
be coincident with the river mouth, or the conflu¬ 
ence of two rivers, or at an arbitrarily determined 
point. Aids are located on either the left bank or 
the right bank, as determined when navigating the 
waterwav in a downstream direction. Sometimes 
the orientation is stated in the Light List as “the 
left descending” or “the right descending bank.” 


Characteristics of Lights 

Lights on the left deseending bank of all water¬ 
ways in the System are either fixed white or fixed 
red, group flashing (2) white or red, equal interval 
white or red, quick flashing red, or interrupted 
quick flashing red. Lights on the right bank de¬ 
scending are either fixed white or fixed green, flash¬ 
ing white or green, equal interval white or green, 
quick flashing green, interrupted quick flashing 
green or fixed green. 

Visibility of Lights 

The majority of lights on Western Rivers are vis¬ 
ible through 360°, that is, all around the horizon, 
and show approximately the same eandlepower 
viewed from any direction. For those navigational 
situations where superior eandlepower is required. 


use is made of lanterns projecting light in one diree- 
tion only. These are known as directional aids. 
They are used in two ways; (1) to supplement a 
360° light by increasing eandlepower in one direc¬ 
tion only, and (2) used alone to show only superior 
eandlepower in one direction. Directional aids are 
established with different degrees of horizontal 
spread; narrow spreads or beams are used to define 
long, narrow reaches; wider spreads are used where 
situations are not critical but a light of superior 
eandlepower is needed. To assist in identification 
of the bank being marked, the lights var}^ in color 
and characteristic. Where confusing background 
lights require the showing of a distinctive light, 
recourse is made to color and flashing or occulting 
characteristics. 


Placing of Lights and Daymarks 

Lights are placed along river banks to afford 
the mariner assistance. Lights are spaced with due 
regard to their useful eandlepower, the shape of the 
river, and the length of the reaches. Primarily, the 
lights serve as leading (or holding) lights at the 
head and foot of each crossing, supplemented bv 
intervening lights where necessar\^ Secondarily, no 
crossing being involved, lights are placed along 
one bank or the other for use as passing lights. 
Where long reaches occur, directional lights of high 
eandlepower are used either alone or in conjunc¬ 
tion with a passing light at the same station, to 
provide a reliable leading light. The exact use of 
anv light can onlv be determined from the chart, 
or from experience. 

Vessels must keep well clear of fixed aids if there 
is sufficient channel to do so because there mav be 
dangerous underwater obstructions present in the 
vicinity. All light structures are equipped with a 
number board showing the number of the aid in 
black figures, which is also the mileage of the river 
at that point. 


Daymarks 

Crossing daymarks are diamond-shaped wooden 
panels. Passing daymarks on the left descending 


107 


bank are triangular-shaped, red or white, and carry 
red reflectors. Passing daymarks on the right de¬ 
scending bank are square and carry white or green 
reflectors. Two boards painted white and fastened 
together to form an '‘X” are used as temporary 
crossing daymarks on the Missouri River. 


Buoys 

Buoys used to mark channels in the Mississippi 
River System conform to the standard lateral buoy¬ 
age system of the United States. In addition, the 
tops of most unlighted buoys in the Mississippi 
River System, except horizontally banded buoys, 
are painted white for distinctive contrast against 
the shore background. All buoys carry reflectors. 
Buoys on the left descending side of the channel 
reflect red. Buoys in the right descending side of 
the channel reflect white, corresponding to the 
similar usage of reflectors on shore aids. 

Lighted buoys marking wrecks show a quick flash¬ 
ing characteristic, sixty (60) flashes being shown 
per minute to indicate that particular caution is 
required. Colors of lights shown from buoys mark¬ 
ing wrecks are white or red on the left descending 
side of the channel, and white or green on the right 
descending side of the channel. 

Lighted buoys marking channel junctions or ob¬ 
structions, which may be passed on either side, 
show an interrupted quick flashing characteristic; 
for example, a sequence of five equally spaced 
flashes repeated ten times per minute. The color 
of light shown may be white, red or green; prefer¬ 
ably white if about midchannel, red if toward the 
left descending and green if toward the right de¬ 
scending side of the channel. However, white may 
be used for any situation to preclude confusion 
with other lighted aids or background lights. 

Special attention is invited to buoys, both lighted 
and unlighted, painted with red and black hori¬ 
zontal bands. These buoys mark junctions or ob¬ 
structions which may be passed on either side, the 
preferred side being indicated by the color of the 
topmost band. If such a buoy should be encoun¬ 
tered near the apparent channel limit, it should be 


passed only after soundings indicate which is the 
proper side to pass. 

In pooled rivers, buoys are normally set to mark 
the nine-foot contour at normal pool elevations. In 
open rivers, buoys are placed to mark project depths 
with consideration being given to the prevailing 
river stage. 

Buoys should always be given as wide a berth as 
possible in passing, consistent with the size of the 
vessel, and the width, length and sharpness of the 
crossing. Buoys should always be used with cau¬ 
tion. They may be carried off station by high 
water, accumulation of drift, ice, or sunk by col¬ 
lision or other causes. When carried off station, 
destroyed or removed to prevent loss, buoys are 
replaced on station at the earliest opportunity. 
Unlighted buoys may be constantly shifted with 
the changes in the channels. While they mark iso¬ 
lated dangers on the right and left descending 
banks, their principal use is to outline bars and 
shoals at the “crossings” and hence mark the 
channel. 


Radar Reflectors 

Certain aids to navigation may be fitted with 
special fixtures, called Radar Reflectors, which 
are designed to enhance their ability to reflect 
radar energy. In general, these fixtures materially 
improve the aids for use by vessels equipped with 
radar. 


Safety Harbor and Safety Landing Markers 

In the pools of the Tennessee River, safety har¬ 
bors and safety landings have been provided. Safety 
harbors are usually deep coves or inlets adjacent 
to and extending back from the navigable channel. 
Entrance markers, on shore, consist of a direction 
board, about three feet by six feet. The upper lim¬ 
its of such harbors are marked by cross of boards. 
Safety landings are areas where the banks have been 
prepared by carefully clearing all stumps and boul¬ 
ders so that vessels may land safely. The upper 
and lower limits of these areas are marked by di- 


108 


rection boards. White direction boards indicate 
first class harbors, providing nine-foot depth at all 
pool stages. Orange direction boards indicate sec¬ 
ond-class harbors, providing depths of nine feet 
except at extreme drawn-down pool stages. 

Emergency Lights or Sirens 

When a rotating amber light is noted or a siren 
is heard on a waterfront facility, an emergency situ¬ 
ation shall be considered to exist at that facility. 
Mariners should stand well clear of any facilities 
giving such signals and report the occurrence im¬ 
mediately to the nearest Coast Guard unit. These 
warning signals are required to be installed at all 
facilities which handle hazardous chemicals. 

Locks and Dams 

Before the development of our present-day sys¬ 
tem of locks and dams, some rivers were not much 
more than rapids, with rushing water and many 
dangerous obstacles. When dams were built at care¬ 
fully planned locations along the rivers the water 
filled behind them, creating a series of pools. Since 
rivers flow “down-hill,” each downstream pool was 
somewhat lower in elevation than the preceding 
one. These dams, of themselves, could have effec¬ 
tively controlled the river but they would just as 
effectively have blocked all river navigation. Con¬ 
sequently, a system of locks was devised to allow 
vessels to pass from one pool to another. 

While locks come in all shapes and sizes, they 
all operate on the same principle—that water tends 
to seek its own level. Basically, a lock is an enclo¬ 
sure with accommodations at both ends (generally 
called gates) for allowing vessels to enter and exit 
the lock. By a system of culverts and valves, the 
water level in the lock can be made to align with 
the pool level of the upstream or downstream side 
of the lock. 

A vessel traveling downstream will enter the lock 
when the water level is at the high (upstream) pool 
level. The upstream gates are then closed and the 
water in the lock is allowed to escape through 
valves and culverts. ^^Tlen the water level in the 
lock is the same as that of the downstream side of 
the lock, the water will cease to flow out of the 
lock. The dowmstream gates are then opened and 


the vessel leaves the lock to continue on its down¬ 
stream voyage. 

A vessel traveling upstream may then enter the 
lock. After the vessel is secured in the lock the 
downstream gates are closed and the water from 
the upper pool is allowed to enter the lock through 
valves and culverts until the water level in the lock 
is the same as that of the upstream pool. The up¬ 
stream gates are then opened and the vessel leaves 
the lock to continue its upstream voyage. 

You are not required to pay a fee for using most 
locks and anv form of craft may be locked through. 
Single vessels are sometimes locked but more often 
many vessels of varying sizes are raised or lowered 
in a single lockage. 

Priority of Vessels Through Locks 

Locking through is not a first-come, first-served 
proposition. The Secretary of the Army has insti¬ 
tuted a system of priorities for vessels using locks 
and they are allowed to pass through in the follow¬ 
ing order: 

1— U.S. militarv^ craft 

2— Vessels carrying U.S. mail 

3— Commercial passenger vessels 

4— Commercial tows 

5— Commercial fishermen 

6— Pleasure craft 

Under certain conditions pleasure craft may 
be locked through with other vessels having a higher 
prioritv, provided that no delay is occasioned there¬ 
by and the safety of other craft is not jeopardized. 
This is done to utilize the capacity of the lock to 
its maximum. 

Lock Signals 

Since the signals used on locks may be lights, 
whistles or other devices, no attempt will be made 
here to describe them in detail. If you normally 
cruise on a certain section of a particular waterway, 
vou should obtain a copy of the local regulations 
in force in your waters. Your course instructor will 
tell vou which set of regulations applv and where 
you will be able to get them. Tliese regulations con¬ 
tain, among other things, signals displayed and util¬ 
ized bv locks and also the proper signals you will 
be required to sound on your boat’s whistle. 


109 


Locking Through 

As you approach a lock, local regulations may 
require you to sound certain whistle signals indi¬ 
cating that vou wish to be locked through. Your 
regulations may prohibit you from approaching 
closer than several hundred feet from the lock while 
waiting. Additionally, you may be required to main¬ 
tain your position close to the bank to allow exiting 
vessels to use the center of the channel as they 
come out of the lock. 

WTien all vessels have left the lock you will re¬ 
ceive the lockmaster’s signal to enter. This signal 
varies according to where you do your boating—it 
may be a series of lights or whistle signals or both. 
In any case, do not attempt to enter the lock until 
you have received permission to do so. When enter¬ 
ing a lock, run at idle speed. A lock is no place to 
create a large wake. The lockmaster will direct you 
to the spot w'here he wants you to tie up inside the 
lock. Vessels are not permitted to drift around 
within the lock w’hile the water le\'el is being raised 
or lowered. All \'essels must be moored. 

You will be required to provide vour own lines 
and they should be not only long enough but ade¬ 
quate for the task. These lines should be at least 
fiftv feet long and longer if locking through some 
locks in the Tennessee Lakes system. The lockman 
will, in most cases, lower a line for the boat opera¬ 
tor to pass up the eye of his mooring line. In some 
locks, both ends of the line must be retained on 
the boat and the bight of the line is sent up. After 
the line is secured by the lockman the operator can 
then control his boat. Boat operators and crewmen 
tending lock-mooring lines should alwavs wear 
USCG approved personal flotation devices. Moor¬ 
ing lines should not be tied off on the boat. They 
must be carefully tended at all times. Extra care 
must be exercised during a downbound lockage 
that the mooring lines are not fouled when the 
water level in the lock is being lowered. A fouled 
line may result in a boat hanging up on the line 
and could cause serious damage or even capsize the 
boat. Use plenty of fenders to protect the hull 
from damage from rough or dirty lock walls. 

Some locks have mooring pins in the lock walls. 
Others have floating bitts which raise and lower 


with the water level. In either case the lockman will 
direct you. 

After all vessels are securely moored and the lock 
gates are closed, the lock is allowed to fill or empty. 
\\^hile being raised or lowered it will be necessary 
to take in line or pay it out as the case may be. 
All vessels must remain in their assigned positions 
until the lock gates are opened and the lockman 
gives the signal to depart. After the signal is given, 
all craft shall depart from the lock as directed by 
the lockman. As you leave the lock keep a sharp 
lookout for other craft approaching from the oppo¬ 
site direction. 

That’s all there is to locking through. If you are 
careful to obser\'e all of your local regulations, 
maintain a slow speed when entering or leaving 
and follow the lockmaster’s directions exactly, you 
will find that the pleasures of cruising our mighty 
rixers can be pleasantlv extended for an endless 
number of miles in either direction. 

Uniform State Waterway Marking System 

Many bodies of water used by boatmen are lo¬ 
cated entirely within the boundaries of a state and 
are subject to regulation by the state. These waters 
do not connect to the sea. Since the concept of 
proceeding from seaward cannot be applied to these 
self-contained bodies of water, the lateral system of 
buo^'age cannot be used. Thus, the individual states 
are left with no choice except to mark their waters 
with a different aids to navigation system. 

The Uniform State Wateru'ays Marking System 
has been devised for these lakes, ponds and rivers; 
and most states have adopted its use. However, 
some states deviate from this system to a certain 
extent in order to suit local conditions. Boatmen 
are well advised to determine in advance the aids 
to navigation system in use before embarking on 
these inland waters. 

The Uniform State Waterwavs Marking Svstem 
employs two categories of waterw'av markers—regu¬ 
lator}' markers and aids to navigation. 

Regulatory Markers 

These consist of buoys and signs which indicate 
information pertaining to rules and regulations. All 
regulatory markers have white backgrounds and 


orange borders. They may be circular, diamond or 
rectangular in shape. In most instances the nature 
of the danger or regulation is indicated in black 
letters or figures within the shape or adjacent to it. 

6-10 A dangerous area is indicated by 
an open diamond shape, as shown 
below. 



6-11 A prohibited area is marked by a 
diamond with a cross inside, as 
shown below. 



6-12 A controlled area, such as one 
which excludes water skiing or 
fishing, is indicated by a circle, 
as shown below. 



6-13 General information and direc¬ 
tions are shown on a square or 
rectangular marker, as shown 
below. 



Aids to Navigation 

Aids to navigation on state waterways use red 
and black buoys to mark channel limits. Red and 
black buoys are generally used in pairs. The vessel 
should pass between the red buoy and its com¬ 
panion black buoy. These buoys will be found on 
opposite sides of the channel, with the red buoy 
on the left descending side and the black buoy on 
the right descending side of the river or stream. 


Ill 




Buoys that are not placed in pairs have distinc¬ 
tive colors which indicate the direetion of the dan¬ 
gerous water from the position of the buoy. 

VERTICAL RED AND WHITE STRIPED 
BUOYS indicate that vessels should not pass 
between the buoy and the nearest shore. Dan¬ 
ger lies inshore of the buoy. 

WHITE BUOYS WITH RED TOPS should 
be passed to the south or west. Do not go to 
the north or east of these buoys as danger lies 
to the north or east, as the case may be. 

WHITE BUOYS WITH BLACK TOPS 
should be passed to the north or east. Do not 
go to the south or west of these buoys as dan¬ 
ger lies to the south or west, as the ease may be. 

Identification of Markers and Aids to Navigation 

Uniform State Waterway Marking System aids 
and markers may carry numbers, letters or words. 
Odd numbers are used on solid-black buoys and 
black-topped buoys. Even numbers are used on 
solid-red buoys and red-topped buoys. All num¬ 
bers inerease in an upstream direetion, oi toward 
the head of navigation. 

Lighted buoys display regularly flashing, oeeult- 
ing or equal-interval light charaeteristies. Red lights 
are used on solid-red buoys; green lights are used 
on solid-black buoys; and white lights are used on 
all other buoys and regulatory markers. 

Other Aids to Navigation 
Lighthouses 

Lighthouses are found on all coasts of the United 
States, on the Great Lakes, and along some of the 
interior waterways of the eountry. These structures 
are so well known that they require little descrip¬ 
tion. Lighthouses are placed where they will be of 
most use, on prominent headlands, at entranees, on 
isolated dangers, or at other points where it is nec¬ 
essary that mariners be warned or guided. Their 
principal purpose is to support a light a eonsider- 
able height above the water. The same structure 
may also house a fog signal and radiobeaeon equip¬ 
ment, and also eontain quarters for the keepers. 

The terms, “seeondary lights," “minor lights," 
and “automatie lights" indicate in a general way 



6-14 Lighthouse 

a wide variety of lights. These lights may be dis¬ 
played from towers resembling the important sea- 
coast lighthouses, or may be shown from almost 
any type of inexpensive strueture. The number of 
lights with keepers in residence is gradually being 
reduced. The ultimate goal is to have all lights 
operate automatically, or nearly so. The essentials 
of lights where keepers are not in residence are: best 
possible loeation dependent on the physical condi¬ 
tions of the site, suffieient height for the loeation, 
a rugged support for the lantern, and a housing for 
the electrie batteries from whieh the light is oper¬ 
ated. Many types of structures meet these essen¬ 
tials—small tank houses surmounted by a short 
skeleton structure or tower, a cluster of piles sup¬ 
porting a battery box and the lens, and countless 
other forms. 

Lights are used as a means of eonveying eertain 
definite information, and are given distinctive ehar- 
acteristics so that one light may be distinguished 
from another. This distinetiveness is obtained by 
employing lights of varying eolors, by having lights 
that burn steadily, and others that flash at intervals 
of great variety. 

By varying the length of the periods of light and 
darkness of any of the flashing or occulting charac¬ 
teristics, a great variety of eharacteristies may be 


12 


obtained. Advantage is taken of this to secure the 
necessary distinctiveness between aids of a given 
area. 

Fog Signals 

Fog signals form an important part of the equip¬ 
ment of many lighthouses situated in sections of 
the country where fog or low visibility is prevalent. 
Fog signals may also be found on floating aids to 
navigation. The function of the fog signal in the sys¬ 
tem of aids to navigation is to warn of danger, and 
to provide the mariner with a practical means of 
determining his position with relation to the fog 
signal at such times as the station or any visual sig¬ 
nal which it displays is obscured from view by fog, 
snow, rain, smoke or thick weather. Among the 
devices in common use as fog signals are: 

DIAPHONES, which produce sound by means 
of a slotted reciprocating piston actuated by 
compressed air. Blasts may consist of two 
tones of different pitch, in which case the 
first part of the blast is high and the last 
of a low pitch. These alternate pitch signals 
are called “two tone.” 

DIAPHRAGM HORNS, which produce 
sound by means of a diaphragm vibrated 
by compressed air, steam or electricity. Du¬ 
plex or triplex horn units of differing pitch 
produce a chime signal. 

SIRENS, which produce sound by means of 
either a disk or a cup-shaped rotor actuated 
by compressed air or by electricity. 

WHISTLES, which produce sound by com¬ 
pressed air emitted through a circumferen¬ 
tial slot into a cylindrical bell chamber. 

BELLS, which are sounded by means of a 
hammer actuated by hand, by a descending 
weight, compressed gas or electricity. 

Fog signals are distinguished by their character¬ 
istics as specified for each aid. TTie characteristic 
of a fog signal is described by its tone and signal 
characteristics. Its tone is determined by the device 
used to create the sound, such as diaphragm horn, 
diaphone, siren, bell or whistle. Fog signals on fixed 
stations or lightships produce a specific number of 
blasts and silent periods each minute, when oper¬ 


ating, to provide positive identification. Fog signals 
on buoys are generally activated by the motion 
of the sea, and may emit no sound signals at all 
when the sea is calm. Fog signals at stations where 
a continuous watch is maintained are sounded 
when the visibility decreases to five miles, and also 
whenever the fog whistle of a passing vessel is 
heard. Fog signals at stations which also operate 
radiobeacons are synchronized with the radiobea¬ 
con for distance finding purposes (see Radiobea¬ 
cons). Fog signals at locations where no continu¬ 
ous watch is maintained may not always be sounded 
promptly when fog conditions exist or may operate 
erratically due to mechanical difficulties. 

Range Lights 

Two lights, located some distance apart, visible 
usually in one direction only, are known as range 
lights. They are so located that the mariner, by 
bringing his vessel into line with them, when they 
will appear one over the other, places his vessel 



6-15 Open Range — Not in Channel 



6-16 Closed Range — In Channel 


113 


on the axis (or in the center line) of the channel. 
If he steers his \’cssel so that the lights remain con¬ 
stantly in line vertically, he will remain within the 
confines of the channel. Entrance channels are fre¬ 
quently marked by range lights. The Delaware 
River and the St. John’s River on the Atlantic 
coast, and the Columbia River on the Pacific coast 
are examples of successive straight reaches marked 
in this manner. The lights of ranges may be any 
of the three standard colors, and may also be fixed, 
flashing or occulting; the principal requirement be¬ 
ing that they stand out distinctly from their sur¬ 
roundings and from the background. Most range 
lights lose brilliance rapidly as the vessel moves off 
the channel center line. 

Ranges should be used only after a careful exam¬ 
ination of the chart. It is particularly important 
to determine the distance the range can be safeh’ 
followed. This information is not obtainable from 
a visual inspection of the lights. 

Lightships 

Lightships serve the same purposes as light¬ 
houses, being equipped with lights, fog signals and 
radiobeacons. They take the form of ships only 
because they are placed at points where it would 
be impracticable to build lighthouses. Lightships 
mark the entrances to important harbors and estu¬ 
aries, dangerous shoals lying in much frequented 
water, and also serve as leading marks for both 
transoceanic and coastwise traffic. 



6-17 Lightship 


The masthead lights, the fog signals, and the 
radiobeacon signals of lightships all have definite 
characteristics, so that each lightship may be dis¬ 


tinguished from the others and also from nearby 
lighthouses. As with lighthouses, details regarding 
these signals are shown briefly on charts and more 
completely in the light lists. 

A lightship underway or off station will fly the 
International Code Signal flags “LO” signifying 
the lightship is not at anchor on her station. While 
underway (and not on station), the lightship will 
not show or sound any of the signals displayed or 
sounded while on station as a lightship, but will 
display the lights prescribed by the International or 
Inland Rules of the Road for a vessel of its class. 
While on station, a lightship shows the masthead 
light only, and a less brilliant light on the forestay, 
the latter ser\ ing to indicate the direction in which 
the ship is heading. By day, the lightship will dis¬ 
play the International Code signal of the station, 
whenever it appears that an approaching vessel does 
not recognize the lightship or requests the informa¬ 
tion. As lightships ride to a single anchor, the light 
on the forestay also indicates the direction of the 
current. Lights on lightships are displayed from one 
hour before sunset until one hour after sunrise and 
at all times when the sound signal is in operation. 

Relief lightships may be placed at any of the 
lightship stations and, when practicable, exhibit 
light, sound and radiobeacon signals having the 
same characteristics as the station. All lightships. 


- •T't 



6-18 Off Shore Light Structure (Texas Tower) 


except Lake Huron Lightship, are painted red with 
the name of the station in white on both sides. 
Lake Huron Lightship is painted black with the 
name of the station in white on both sides. Relief 
lightships are painted the same color as the regular 
station ships, with the word “RELIEF” in white 
letters on both sides. 

When the Coast Guard’s modernization pro¬ 
gram is complete, it is anticipated that offshore 
light stations (Texas tower type structures) will re¬ 
place most lightships. Of the original 24, only Ore¬ 
gon’s Columbia River and Washington State’s 
Umatilla Reef Lightships will remain. They will 
maintain stations off the Pacific Northwest coast 
in positions where it would be impractical to build 
offshore stations. 

Maritime Radiobeacons 

Radiobeacons are valuable aids during fog and 
are also available for navigation in clear weather. 
In order to use this system, the mariner needs a 
radio direction finder, which is a specifically de¬ 
signed radio receiver with a directional antenna. 
This receiver is used to determine the direction of 
the signal being emitted by the shore station, rela¬ 
tive to his vessel. 

The basic value of the radiobeacon system lies 
in its simplicity of operation and its relatively low 
cost even though the results obtained may be some¬ 
what limited. The general problems and practices 
of navigation when using radiobeacons are ven' 
similar to those encountered when using visual bear¬ 
ings of lighthouses or other charted objects. 

Most United States and Canadian radiobeacons 
must share a group frequency with other radio¬ 
beacons. Normally, the stations operate in groups 
of six, each station in a group using the same fre¬ 
quency and transmitting for one minute in its 
proper sequence. A few radiobeacons transmit for 
one minute with two minutes of silence, and some 
radiobeacons transmit continuously without inter¬ 
ruption. 

Radiobeacons operate during all periods, either 
sequenced or continuously, regardless of weather 
conditions. 

For station identification, simple characteristics 
consisting of combinations of dots and dashes are 


used. These combinations, and the lengths of the 
dots, dashes and spaces are chosen for ease of iden¬ 
tification. It is not necessary to be skilled in the 
art of radiotelegraphy to identify the stations. The 
combinations are not transmitted as Morse Code 
and are not referred to as such. 

They are referred to by dots and dashes depend¬ 
ing on the combinations used. For example. Cape 
Henlopen’s characteristic is .. —.. and Port¬ 
land’s is-.-. All radiobeacons superimpose 

the characteristic on a carrier which is “on” con¬ 
tinuously during the period of transmission. This 
extends the usefulness of the marine radiobeacons 
to aircraft and vessels which employ automatic 
radio direction finders. 

The service range is determined by the strength 
of the radiated signal. The actual useful range may 
vary considerably from the service range with dif¬ 
ferent types of radio direction finders and during 
various atmospheric conditions. 

The accuracy of radiodirection finders is depend¬ 
ent upon the skill of the operator, the equipment 
used, and the radio wave interference. Skill in using 
a manually operated radio direction finder can be 
acquired only through practice and by following 
exactly the operating instructions provided with 
the equipment. An understanding of adverse con¬ 
ditions and direction finding limitations must be 
achieved before the navigator can use the equip¬ 
ment with confidence. 

As an operator obtains bearings with a manually 
revolving loop type direction finder, he can estimate 
the bearing by the arc of silence (null) or mini¬ 
mum strength of the radiated signal. He should, 
however, be cognizant of the possibility of erron 
and should evaluate the circumstances under which 
the bearing was taken. Bearings taken on inland 
stations could contain error due to refraction or 
reflection, and such bearings should be used cau¬ 
tiously. Bearings taken around the periods of morn¬ 
ing and evening twilight should be considered of 
doubtful validity due to “night effect.” Erroneous 
readings could be caused by currents induced in 
the direction finder antenna by re-radiation from 
structural features aboard the vessel, such as masts, 
davits, radio antennas and other vertical metallic 
objects. Lateral deviation of the radio wave can 
occur when the great circle route between the 


115 


transmitter and the receiver is roughly parallel to 
a coastline. Also, bearings taken when a land mass 
is between the transmitter and the receiver should 
be used with caution. Whenever possible, the mar¬ 
iner should check his radio bearings against visual 
sightings in clear weather to determine the degree 
of accuracy that is to be expected in periods of 
reduced visibility. 

Distance-Finding Stations 

At certain stations, the radiobeacon and sound 
signal are synchronized for distance finding. The 
beginning of the ten-second radio dash and the 
beginning of the five-second blast of the fog signal 
are synchronized for this purpose. The ten-second 
radio dash and the long (5 second) blast of the fog 
signal commence at the same instant. Therefore, 
when within audible range of the sound signal, 
navigators on vessels with radio receivers capable 
of receiving radiobeacon signals may readily deter¬ 
mine their distance from the station by observing 


the time in seconds which elapsed between first 
hearing the beginning of the ten-second radio dash 
and the beginning of the five-second sound blast. 
The time in seconds is divided by 5.5 to determine 
the distance off from the station emitting the sig¬ 
nals in nautical miles. The accuracy of this type 
of calculation, provided the stop watch is correct¬ 
ly read, would be within a tolerance of about 10 
per cent. 

The two-seconds of silence preceding the long 
radio dash is a stand-by or warning signal. The one- 
second fog signal blast is also a warning. It is im¬ 
portant to point out that the distance finding 
system just described is not restricted to vessels 
having radio direction finding equipment aboard, 
but may be used by any vessel having a radio re¬ 
ceiver capable of receiving on the 285 to 325 KHz 
band. 

An example of a typical synchronized radio-sound 
system follows: 


R3H OFF 


PR'DGRAMMED 
RADIO CODE-j 


RM)IO 

SILENCE 


RADIO 

dash 


RADIO 


5 MINUTES 


48 SECONDS 

2 SECONDS 

PROGRAMMED 

FO-G SIGNAL CHARACTERISTIC-! SHORT BLAST 

// // // ■// // irr-j/ r/f - JT- 

5 MINUTES 53 SECONDS 


j 


10 SECONDS 
^ LONG BLAST 



SOUND 


J 


1 sEcaTO 

SILENCE 1 SECOND-» 

6-19 Typical Synchronized Radio-Sound System. 


5 SECONDS 


If the interval between hearing the beginning 
of the long radio dash marking the end of the 
radiobeacon minute and the beginning of the long 
blast of the fog signal is 33 seconds, the observ'er 
is 33 -f- 5.5 = 6 miles from the station. 

Marker Radiobeacons 

Marker radiobeacons are of low power for local 
use only, and are seldom heard at a distance of 
more than four or five miles from the station. They 


operate continuously, transmitting a series of 
second dashes for 1314 seconds, followed by a 1 Vi 
second silent period to complete a fifteen-second 
cycle. 

Loran 

The term “LORAN” is derived by combining 
the first letters of the words “LOng Range Aid 
to Navigation.” LOIL\N is an electronic system 
by which a navigator can determine his position 


116 










or a line of position accurately and quickly, un¬ 
affected by weather. It makes use of special radio 
transmitting stations on shore (LORAN transmit¬ 
ting stations), specially designed radio receivers 
with an electronic time-measuring device (LORAN 
receiving indicator), and special charts and tables 
(LORAN charts and tables). 

The LORAN transmitting stations, critically 
spaced on shore, operate in pairs. Each produces 
signals from which one line of position may be 
determined. Pairs are further arranged in chains 
of three or more stations from which two or more 
lines of position can be derived, thereby providing 
fix coverage. When the chain arrangement is used, 
the intermediate station operates in both adjacent 
pairs. The navigator may obtain position informa¬ 
tion from any pair, both stations of which are 
within reception range of his receiver-indicator. 

Ocean Station Vessels 

With the exception of large ocean-going vachts, 
ocean station vessels (on station) will seldom, if 
ever, be seen by pleasure boatmen. However, they 
do represent an integral part of the aids to navi¬ 
gation system and a few words concerning these 
ocean station vessels might be of interest. 

Called by some, “Weather Station,” or “Weath¬ 
er Patrol,” an ocean station is a selected section 
of the ocean 210 miles square, located hundreds of 
miles from the nearest land in both the North 
Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans. Except for 
emergencies, the ocean station vessel stays in the 
ten mile square center grid. This is not as easy as 
it sounds. The ship is continually moving within 
that square, drifting from one side to the other. 
Then it must get underway and return to the origi¬ 
nal starting point, to begin the process all over 
again. It is impossible to anchor in the deep water 
and the drifting method saves fuel. 

Acting as an aid to navigation and supplying 
weather information are two essential functions of 
ocean station vessels. Compared to the history of 
seafaring, both functions are relatively new. There is 
no historical evidence to indicate that early mariners 
ever thought of instituting an aid to navigation such 
as the ocean station. Today, increased navigational 
capabilities aboard modern aircraft, as well as the 


expanding coverage of reliable electronic naviga¬ 
tion systems, have alleviated much of the need for 
Ocean Stations as a navigational reference point. 
The meteorological function of this program is 
slowly being taken over by large automated weather 
data collection buoys for surface observations as 
well as the present weather satellite system. 



6-20 Loran Transmitting Station 



6-21 Weather Buoy 


117 




Chart Symbols for Aids to Navigation 

All aids to navigation are- depicted on charts by 
the use of symbols. These symbols make no at¬ 
tempt at accuracy in scale or detail. Chart No. 1, 
published in booklet form, lists each symbol in use 
on charts issued by the U.S. Lake Survey, National 
Ocean Survey (NOS) and the U.S. Navy Ocean¬ 
ographic Office. The student is well advised to 
procure a copy of this booklet and become fa¬ 
miliar with the symbols for the more commonly 
used aids to navigation, and marine hazards rela¬ 
tive to the operation of small craft. 

Symbols for Buoys 

The basic symbol for a buoy is a diamond and 
a dot. The dot denotes the position of the buoy 
and is sometimes called the anchor dot. The dia¬ 
mond is used primarily to draw attention to the 
position of the anchor dot, and it also may par¬ 
tially describe the aid in question. 

The position of the diamond with reference to 
the dot is of no significance. The diamond may be 
placed in any attitude relative to the dot, to suit 
the situation and to afford the least amount of 



6-22 Basic Symbol For a Buoy 

interference with other local features or conditions 
on the chart. (If the diamond is below the dot on 
the chart, it does not mean that the buoy is up¬ 
side down!) 




• /V 


NUN BUOY 



CAN BUOY 




SPAR BUOY 



O 


7 


MOORING BUOY 




"ANCHOR" DOT 


6-23 Various Buoy Symbols 

The shape of the buoy will be indicated by ini- This symbol is a quadrangle with the anchor dot 

tials if the shape is of significance. at the bottom 

A mooring buoy is the only buoy that is depicted If the aid is painted red, the diamond will gen- 

by a symbol other than the diamond and dot. erally be colored red; and if the aid is painted black. 


118 
















the diamond will be black. If the aid is red and striped, the diamond will have a line drawn through 

black horizontally banded, the diamond will be red its long dimension, 

and black. If the aid is white and black vertically 



RED BLACK 

6-24 Red and Black Buoy Symbols 

The five color patterns used on buoys which have 
no lateral significance are shown as follows: 


RED AND BLACK BLACK AND WHITE 

HORIZONTALLY BANDED VERTICALLY BANDED 

6-25 Banded Buoy Symbols 

(In each case below, the buoy is cylindrical 
in shape.) 


C 



BW 


WHITE 



BLACK & WHITE 

6-26 Buoys with No Lateral Significance 



If a buoy is lighted, a magenta colored disc will 
be overprinted on the anchor dot. The character¬ 
istic of the light will be described briefly. This is 


done by the use of abbreviations. These are as fol¬ 
lows: 




QkB/ /QkF/ Mo(A) E/nt 


QUICK FLASHING INTERRUPTED 

QUICK FLASHING 

6-27 Example of Lighted Buoy Symbols 

119 


MORSE "A" 
SHORT-LONG 


EQUAL 

INTERVAL 



























Flashing lights may be further identified accord¬ 
ing to their timed characteristics. 



6-28 Time Characteristics of Flashing Light Buoys 


The color of the light is also indicated on the 
chart. Colors of lights on buoys are either red, 
green or white. For red or green lights, the initials 


R or G are used. If the color of the light is not 
identified on the chart, it is assumed that the light 
is white. 



6-29 Colored Lights on Buoys 


Other features may also be on the buoy. These 
are sound signals, radar reflectors, numbers or let¬ 
ters, or any combination of these features. Bells 


and horns are spelled out; radar reflectors are ab¬ 
breviated; and numbers or letters which are painted 
on the aid are shown in quotation marks. 




AfoOt) 

RaRif 



6-30 Other Features on Buoys 


Qkf/R 
BELL 
RaRzf 


The Rule of Lettering 

On all charts, lettering is printed in both vertical 
and slanted type. The basic rule is that if an object 
is afloat, or if it covers and uncovers with tidal 
action of the water, the descriptive wording or 


abbreviation is printed in SLANTED TYPE. If 
the object is not afloat, or if it does not cover and 
uncover with the tide, the descriptive wording is 
printed in VERTICAL TYPE. Thus a mariner 
can tell at a glance if ALPHA ROCK is an islet 
or a reef. If the wording is printed in slanted type. 


120 






















































it can at times be under water and thus may not 
be seen. All descriptive lettering for floating aids 
to navigation is found in slanted type, while de¬ 
scriptions of lighthouses, ranges and other objects 
not afloat are found in vertical type. 

Symbols for Lighthouses 

The basic symbol for a lighthouse is a dot with 
an overprinted magenta disc. Major lights are 
named and described while minor lights are de¬ 
scribed only. The characteristics of the light are 
shown; the height of the focal plane of the lantern 
above mean high water is also shown. The geo¬ 
graphic or nominal range is shown (approximately) 
in miles, and other equipment on the station is 
listed. 

The symbol shown below describes a minor 
light (not named). The light is fixed white and 
the lantern is 20 feet above mean high water and 
visible nine miles. (Height of eye of the observer 
is assumed to be 15 feet above mean sea level.) 


If the lighthouse has a radiobeacon, the magenta 
disc is surrounded by a magenta circle and the 
radio frequency and identifying signal are described. 

The lighthouse depicted below is described as 
follows: 

SILVKR REEF LIGHT 

Displays a group of two flashes of white light every 
10 seconds. 

I’he lantern is 87 feet above MHW and is visible 
through its geographic range (10.5 miles -|- 4.4 
miles for the assumed height of eye of the ob¬ 
server of 15 feet). 

This station has a fog horn and a distance finding 
system. (Synchronized radio-sound signal) 

The radiobeacon is on continuously, on frequency 292 
kHz and is identified by a dot, a dash and two 
dots. 

If the radiobeacon shared a frequency with other 
stations, the sequence within the group would be 
indicated by a Roman Numeral. Each station is 
assigned a minute in its proper sequence. If this 
station were fourth in its group, the Roman Nu¬ 
meral IV would appear behind the RBN frequency. 
(Normally, the stations operate in groups of six.) 


G) 

Fw 

20 FT 9 M 

SYMBOL FOR A MINOR LIGHT. 



SILVER REEF 

GP FL (2) 10 SEC 87 FT 15 M 
HORN DFS 

R Bn 292 •H## CONTINUOUSLY 


R BN 292 


• mmooJSL 


IF THIS RADIOBEACON WERE FOURTH IN ITS GROUP THE 
ROMAN NUMERAL IV WOULD APPEAR AS SHOWN ABOVE 

6-31 Symbols for Lighthouses 


Certain lights are not visible through the 360° 
arc of the horizon, because of interference by land 
masses. When a light is observ^ed through a por¬ 
tion of its arc, the symbol for the light on the chart 
is shown with an obscured sector. 

Some lights contain a red sector to warn of spe¬ 
cial dangers within the arc of visibility of the sec¬ 


tor. When a light contains such a sector, it is 
shown on the chart. 

Symbols for Lightships 

Symbols for lightships include a brief description 
of the vessel's signaling capabilities. 

Columbia River Lightship has a diaphone and 


12I 


Radiobeacon in addition to the light. The Radio¬ 
beacon shares frequency 304 KHz with five other 
lights in the vicinity, and is second in the regular 
sequence of six one-minute transmissions. 

This sequence, which is typical of the shared se¬ 
quence system, is as follows: 



Minute 

I Cape Arago Lt — •- 

II Columbia River LS -• • 

III Willapa Bay Lt • •- 

IV Cape Disappointment Lt- 

V Cape Blanco Lt -• 

VI Yaquina Head Lt •- 

All on frequency 304 KHz 

Symbols for Ranges and Daybeacons 

Ranges are depicted on charts by the symbols 
for the lights (if lighted) and a dashed line indi¬ 
cating the direction of the range. 


0 — 0 - 

^FG ^FW 

Ar 


6-33 Symbols for Ranges and Daybeacons 

Since the far light is higher than the near light, 
this range is followed by keeping the fixed green 
light directly above the fixed white light. 

Daybeacons are depicted by small triangles, some¬ 
times colored to match the aid itself. Beacons are 


never afloat, and have a great array of shapes. They 
are described in sufficient detail in the Light List 
to make identification possible. 

Distance of Visibility at Sea 

This chapter on Aids to Navigation would not 
be complete without some comment concerning 
the distance of visibility of objects at sea. 

Distance of visibility is dependent on many fac¬ 
tors. For all objects, atmospheric conditions be¬ 
come the first limiting factor. Dense fog could 
reduce the visible distance to zero. The height of 
the object increases the distance from which it can 
be seen. Similarly, if one increases the height of 
the eye, objects may be seen at a greater distance. 
Thus height of the object and height of eye be¬ 
come the second limiting factor. On lighthouses 
(and other lighted aids) the intensity of the light 
becomes the third limiting factor. Regardless of 
how high a light is placed above water level, it 
will not be seen as far away in the case of a weak 
light as it would be if it were a more powerful light. 

Atmospheric Conditions 

When listening to weather reports before putting 
out to sea, one often hears terms such as “thick 
fog” or “haze.” These terms are not mere generali¬ 
ties, but are determined according to values which 
have been agreed upon bv all maritime nations 
and are listed in the “International Visibility 
Code.” A part of the table of Meteorological Opti¬ 
cal Range is reproduced below. By reference to this 
table, the navigator mav determine the approxi¬ 
mate distance from which objects (headlands, 
breakwaters, etc.) may be expected to be seen in 
the circumstances. 

METEOROLOGICAL OPTICAL RANGE 
Code No. Weather Statute Miles Yards 

0 Dense Fog 0.0 to 0.03 0 to 50 

1 Thick Fog 0.03 to 0.12 50 to 200 

3 Moderate Fog 0.12 to 0.31 200 to 500 

3 Light Fog 0.31 to 0.62 500 to 1,000 

Nautical Miles 

4 Thin Fog 0.62 to 1.2 0.5 to 1.0 

5 Haze 1.2 to 2.5 1.0 to 2.0 

6 Light Haze 2.5 to 6.2 2.0 to 5.5 

7 Clear 6.2 to 12.0 5.5 to 11.0 

8 Very Clear 12.0 to 31.0 11.0 to 27.0 

9 Exceptionally Clear over 31.0 over 27.0 

Note: On Coastal Waters, the Nautical Mile is 


122 








employed. On the Great Lakes (and on all inland 
waters) the Statute Mile is used. 

Nominal Range 

Nominal Range is the maximum distance at 
which a light may be seen in clear weather (Visi¬ 
bility Code 7 above) expressed in nautical miles 
on coastal waters and statute miles on the Great 
Lakes. Nominal range is listed in the Light List 
for lights having a computed nominal range of five 
nautical miles (or statute miles) or more. 

Luminous Range 

Luminous range is the maximum distance at 
which a light may be seen under existing visibility 
conditions. The luminous range varies considerably 
with atmospheric conditions and the intensity of 
the light. TTie luminous range may be determined 
by Luminous Range Diagrams included in the vari¬ 
ous Light Lists published by the Coast Guard. The 
student is referred to these publications for further 
study, if interested. 

Geographic Range 

Geographic range is the maximum distance at 
which a light may be seen under conditions of 
perfect visibility, limited by the curvature of the 
earth only. This is expressed in nautical miles for 
coastal waters and in statute miles for the Great 


Lakes. This distance may be found on some charts 
with a brief description of the light, and assumes the 
eye of the observer to be at a height of fifteen feet 
above sea (or lake) level. In cases of lights with 
moderate candlepower, the nominal range (again in 
conditions of perfect visibility) may be shown on the 
charts in place of the geographic range. The 
National Ocean Survey will chart only the nominal 
range of all lights. 

The following tables give the approximate geo¬ 
graphic range of visibility of an object which may 
be seen by an observer whose eye is at sea level. 
In practice, it is necessary to add to these a distance 
of visibility corresponding to the height of the ob¬ 
server's eye above sea level. 

DISTANCE OF VISIBILITY OF OBJECTS AT SEA 
COASTAL WATERS 




(Nautical Miles) 



Height 

Distance 

Height 

Distance 

Height 

Distance 

(feet) 

(nautical 

(feet) 

(nautical 

(feet) 

(nautical 


miles) 


miles) 


miles) 

5 

2.6 

70 

9.6 

250 

18.1 

10 

3.6 

75 

9.9 

300 

19.8 

15 

4.4 

80 

10.2 

350 

21.4 

20 

5.1 

85 

10.5 

400 

22.9 

25 

5.7 

90 

10.9 

450 

24.3 

30 

6.3 

95 

11.2 

500 

25.6 

35 

6.8 

100 

11.4 

.550 

26.8 

40 

7.2 

110 

12.0 

600 

28.0 

45 

7.7 

120 

12.5 

650 

29.1 

50 

8.1 

1.30 

13.0 

700 

30.3 

55 

8.5 

140 

11.5 

800 

32.4 

60 

8.9 

150 

14.0 

900 

34.3 

65 

9.2 

200 

16.2 

1.000 

36.2 



123 










GREA T LAKES 
(Statute Miles) 


Height 

Distance 

Height 

Distance 

Height 

Distance 

(feet) 

(statute 

(feet) 

(statute 

(feet) 

(statute 


miles) 


miles) 


miles) 

5 

2.9 

70 

11.0 

250 

20.9 

10 

4.2 

75 

11.4 

300 

22.9 

15 

5.1 

80 

11.8 

350 

24.7 

20 

5.9 

85 

12.2 

400 

26.4 

25 

6.6 

90 

12.5 

450 

28.0 

30 

7.2 

95 

12.9 

500 

29.5 

35 

7.8 

100 

13.2 

550 

31.0 

40 

8.3 

110 

13.8 

600 

32.3 

45 

8.9 

120 

14.5 

650 

33.6 

50 

9.3 

130 

15.1 

700 

34.7 

55 

9.8 

140 

15.6 

800 

37.3 

60 

\02 

150 

16.2 

900 

39.6 

65 

• 10.6 

200 

18.7 

1,000 

41.7 


Useful Navigational Publications 
Light Lists 

In order to keep mariners informed concerning 
the status of various aids to navigation, which 
change almost daily, the Coast Guard and the Nav}' 
Oceanographic Office issue certain informative pub¬ 
lications. One series is the Coast Guard Light Lists, 
which are complete compilations of all aids to navi¬ 
gation maintained by the Coast Guard, geograph¬ 
ically listed. The Light Lists give supplemental:}' 
information on aids to navigation which cannot be 
included on the charts. Copies of the Light Lists 
are available from the Superintendent of Docu¬ 
ments, Government Printing Office, Washington, 
D.C., 20402, at a nominal fee, and from local sales 
agents, who are listed annually in the Weekly 
Notice to Mariners. 

The following Lists are available: 

Light List, Atlantic Coast, Volume I (CG-1S8) 
describing aids to navigation in the United States 
waters from St. Croix River, Maine, to Little River, 
South Carolina. 

Light List, Atlantic and Gulf Coast, Volume II 
(CG-160) describing aids to navigation in the 
United States waters from Little River, South Caro¬ 
lina, to Rio Grande River, Texas, and the Greater 
Antilles. 

Light List, Pacific Coast and Pacific Islands, 
Volume III (CG-162) describing aids to navigation 


in United States waters off the Pacific Coast and 
outlying Pacific Islands. For the convenience of 
mariners, there are included also the lighted aids 
on the coast of British Columbia, maintained by 
the Canadian government. 

Light List, Great Lakes, Volume IV (CG-1S7) 
describing aids to navigation maintained by the 
United States Coast Guard, and the lighted side 
maintained by the Dominion of Canada on the 
Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River, above 
the St. Regis River. 

Light List, Mississippi River System, Volume V 
(CG-161) describing the aids to navigation on the 
Mississippi and Ohio Rivers and navigable tribu¬ 
taries. 

Notice to Mariners 

The Notice to Mariners announces items of im¬ 
portance to the safety of marine navigation con¬ 
cerning aids to navigation, channel conditions, 
menaces to navigation and all special conditions of 
interest to mariners. There are three methods by 
which this information is disseminated—Broadcast 
Notices, Local Notices and Weekly Notices. Ur¬ 
gent notices concerning changes or deficiencies in 
aids to navigation are issued by means of radio 
broadcasts. Local Notices to Mariners are issued 
by the Commanders of the applicable Coast Guard 
Districts. Weekly notices to mariners, published 
jointly by the Coast Guard and the Naval Oceano¬ 
graphic Office, contain information on aids to navi¬ 
gation over much wider areas than the Local No¬ 
tices, and are used principally to correct charts and 
other nautical publications. 

I'he Local Notices are valuable to the boatmen as 
a navigational aid to local waters, and may be 
obtained free of charge by application to the 
Commander of the Coast Guard District in which 
the boat is principally operated. Weekly Notices are 
intended for seagoing vessels and others requiring 
information covering wide areas. They may be 
obtained free of charge from the Commandant (G- 
WAN), U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C. 
20590. 


124 


CHAPTER 7 


Charts and Compass 


The Marine Compass 

A compass is an absolute necessity if you are 
planning on offshore sailing. A good pocket com¬ 
pass is better than none. W^ile cost may be the 
governing factor in the selection of compass, pref¬ 
erably it should be one that fits the individual boat, 
and upon which the operator may rely totally. 

A compass that is too small has a tendency to 
be nen'ous and overact to the motion of the boat; 
also it is harder to read a small compass accurately. 
On the other hand a too-large compass will lag be¬ 
hind the ability of a small boat to swing, and will 
respond sluggishly to a change of helm. 

In very general terms, a 2 inch or V/i inch 
diameter compass card would be suitable for most 
boats less than 26 feet in length. The very popular 
V/j inch diameter compass card would be ideal for 
boats in the 23 to 26 foot range and is adequate for 
most boats up to about 35 feet. The 4 and 5 inch 
diameter compass, however, begins to be very 
popular when the boat length gets up to 35 to 40 feet. 
For boats 40 to 65 feet in length a 6 or 7 inch model 
would be desirable. 

As in any precision instrument, price determines 
the refinements which can be included. Desirable 
features would include: built in compensators to 
correct for deviation (errors caused by metallic 
objects built into the boat), proper illumination 
(this should be a red light), internal gimbaling 
(pivoting devices which allow the card to remain 
horizontal regardless of the angle of the body or 
boat), and an expansion chamber to keep the 
compass bubble free. 

Certain questions should be considered prior to 
final selection and purchase. Your selection will 


depend to a great extent on where you can mount 
your compass. Some marine compasses are “front 
reading” like an automobile compass, while others 
are read “over the top of the card.” A com¬ 
pass that reads directly over the card is usually 
preferred whenever it is possible to mount this type 
of instrument. 



7-1 Front Reading Compass 


One important point should be brought out now. 
In mounting your compass it is not necessary to 
set it over the fore-and-aft centerline (keel) of the 
boat. It must, however, be set so that an imaginary' 
line through the lubber’s line and the extension pin 
over the pivot point will be parallel with the keel. 
The lubber’s line is the marking on the case or 
bowl of the compass. You steer by turning the 


125 






vessel so that the desired compass course is op¬ 
posite this mark. Remember, the compass card 
tends always to remain with the north point turned 
towards the Magnetic North Pole and you main¬ 
tain your desired compass heading by turning the 
boat about the pivot point of the compass. 



7-2 Over the Card Reading Compass 
Compass Construction 

Just what does comprise a good modem marine 
compass? The compass card, usually with either 
two or five degree graduations, pivots on a jeweled 
bearing. The pivot point is a hard alloy. An alloy 
magnet or, in some models, a bundle of needle 
magnets, is mounted on the underside of the card 
and is aligned with the north-south marking. The 
card and the pivot may be mounted on internal 
gimbals to allow for maximum heeling in sailing 
craft. Most^ compasses are now in spherical con¬ 
tainers. The best are truly spherical so that as the 
card tilts the liquid displacement is uniform on 
both sides of the card tor the most effective 
dampening action. 

Internal compensation magnets will correct a 
modest amount of deviation error and beyond that 
you can always add external rod magnets in small 


tubular brass holders if your deviation is excessive. 
Your compass will be filled with a suitable com¬ 
pass fluid. This fluid serves the dual purposes of 
dampening card oscillations and of reducing bear¬ 
ing pressures by partly floating the compass card. 

This is a good place for a warning—do not try 
to refill your compass with kerosene if a bubble 
develops. The wrong fluid may very well react with 
the plastic bowl and ruin it. If your compass has 
developed a bubble, it is highly probable that the 
diaphragm of the pressure compensating chamber 
has a pinhole and will have to be replaced. You 
will not have this spare part in your tool box any¬ 
way. If the compass is an inexpensive one, plan 
to replace it. If it is an expensive instrument, there 
are service stations where repairs can be made but 
their services are expensive. 

Using Our Compass 

We have our boat and a compass, but what now? 
Well, in the most elementary terms, if we leave 
the harbor heading down channel and our compass 
reads 110 degrees, then, should it get foggy on the 
way back, we should arrive home safely by heading 
on a compass course of 110° plus 180° or 290° 
coming up-channel. For the sake of simplicity we 
have assumed our compass has no deviation error 
in this instance. Most other usage of a compass is 
not really much more complicated than this once 
we learn to handle the so-called “errors.” 

Compass Errors 

We have mentioned deviation error previously. 
There are several natural phenomena which will 
cause a compass needle to be deflected so that it 
does not point in a true north direction. These 
are called compass errors. Actually they are not 
compass defects but are simply magnetic in- 
fluerices of one kind or another which affect the 
direction in which the compass points. There are 
only two of these that we will concern ourselves 
within this text—variation and deviation. An un¬ 
usual error called “local attraction” is a local mag¬ 
netic disturbance of sufficient force to cause a 
noticable deflection of a magnetic compass. This 
is noted on the chart of the area. If you have com- 


126 


pass problems due to boat eonstruction (steel hulls), 
or heeling error (cruising sailing craft), more ad¬ 
vanced texts should be consulted for guidance. 

Variation 

We will consider variation first because it ap¬ 
plies to all compasses and almost all areas. Varia¬ 
tion is defined as the angular difference expressed in 
degrees between the direction toward true north 
(North Pole) and the direction toward magnetic 
north (compass north). This difference is expressed 
as either an easterly or a westerly “error.” This 
obviously needs some additional explanation. 

The masses of magnetic ore that form the North 
and South Magnetic Poles are not at the geographic 
poles. Neither are they 180 degrees opposite each 
other. Therefore the magnetic field they create 
around the earth is somewhat distorted, and the 
compass needle varies in the direction it points, 
depending on our location relative to this distorted 
field and the true poles. 

Variation is labeled E (east) or W (west). This 
describes the direction the magnetic needle moves 
from true north. Most of the East Coast and 
Great Lakes have westerly variation, while the 
West Coast and the Gulf of Mexico have 
easterly variation. Variation is always the same 
for all boats in one location; it does not var^^ 
from boat to boat. Local variation is shown several 
times on charts. Look for this information in the 
center of the compass roses on your charts. In some 
areas the variation changes slightly from year to 


are working from a very old and out-of-date chart, 
which is dangerous practice if a more current 
chart can be obtained. For practical piloting, we 
will con\’ert the variation as given to the nearest 
whole degree and use this figure to make our cor¬ 
rections. Thus, a variation given as 11°40'W in 
1958, with an annual change of 2'W would be 
updated and rounded off to the nearest full de¬ 
gree-12° W. 

Deviation 

A wooden sailing vessel with no engine would 
probably have very little if any deviation error. Add 
an engine and several items of electronic navigation 
equipment near the helm and compass and this 
same vessel will have compass deviation errors. This 
requires either compensation of the compass to re¬ 
move all error or the correction of compass courses 
to give consideration to these deviation errors. 

Simply stated, deviation is the angular difference 
between the magnetic course of the vessel and the 
course indicated on the compass (compass course). 
This error is not necessarily a constant for a vessel 
but will change with each change in the boat’s 
heading. As with variation,* this error can be 
either easterly or westerly. A boat’s deviation can 
change if you change the engines, or add or 
subtract wiring or electronic gear near the com¬ 
pass. Methods of determining deviation and the 
compensation of compasses to reduce the error 
will not be covered in this text. You will learn how 
to handle it when you are more aware of its mag¬ 
nitude. Other texts and more advanced courses will 
offer an opportunity to learn how to determine 
your deviation and compen¬ 
sate your compass to reduce 
the deviation, and how to 
prepare a deviation table to 
handle any remaining error, 
which is usually not more 
than 3 to 5 degrees. 

There are many profes¬ 
sional compass correctors lo¬ 
cated in boating areas, who 
for a small fee, will compen¬ 
sate your compass and make 
up a deviation table for you. 
TTiis is money well spent. 


year and your chart may indicate a few minutes of 
annual change. Usually this is important only if you 



World Chart of Isogonic Lines (Line—Connecting 
Points of Equal Variation). 


127 





It would seem appropriate at this point to offer 
a word of cheer to our many outboard motorboat 
operators. Your engine is at the stern, usually as 
far from the helm as possible, and it is largely com¬ 
posed of aluminum parts which are nonmagnetic. 
It is most probable that you do not have enough 
deviation error to worry about. This is especially 
true since it is also a practical fact that except in a 
flat calm you probably cannot steer closer than 
three to five degrees of your intended course. For 
you, this means the magnetic course is also your 
compass or steering course, and piloting becomes 
just that much simpler. In the event that you 
should “graduate” to a larger boat, as many of us 
do, learn about deviation anyway. You will not 
regret it. 


TRUE 

NORTH 

MAGNETIC ^ 
NORTH, 

COMPASS 
READS 


DEVIATION: 

The amount a mag¬ 
netic compass is de¬ 
flected by magnetic 
materials in the boat 
around it. 

270 


DEVIATION 
COMPASS ERROR 



EXAMPLE: 

Shaded area illus¬ 
trates 5° westerly 
deviation. 


Handling Compass Errors 

We have discussed the two primary errors in 
some detail. Now it is necessary to learn how to 
handle these errors to determine the proper com¬ 
pass course, and conversely to determine the true 
course from a compass course or a true bearing 
from a compass bearing. 

Westerly errors, either variation or deviation, 
are added as we go from true course to compass 
course, and easterly errors are therefore subtracted. 
Conversely, converting from compass course or 
bearing to a true course or bearing, westerly errors 
would be subtracted and easterly errors would be 
added. An easy way to remember this is to 
memorize the phrase: 

True Virtue Makes Dull Company—Add Whiskey 
From this you get: 

T V M D C 

(True) (Variation) (Magnetic) (Deviation (Compass) 

A (W) 

(Add) (Westerly) 


The complete formula is: 


7-4 Illustration of Deviation , ^ 

+West 

—East 


DEVIATION TABLE 

(A TABULATION OF THE DEVIATIONS ON VARIOUS HEADINGS) 


SHIPS HEAD 
COMPASS 

TRUE BEARING 

OF RANGE 

VARIATION 

MAGNETIC 

BEARING 

OF RANGE 

COMPASS 

BEARING 

OF RANGE 

DEVIATION 

000° 

061° 

2°W 

063° 

058° 

5°E 

015° 

061° 

2°W 

063° 

060° 

3°E 

030° 

061° 

2°W 

063° 

061° 

2°E 

045° 

061° 

2°W 

063° 

062° 

1°E 

060° 

061° 

2°W 

063° 

062° 

1°E 

075° 

061° 

2°W 

063° 

064° 

1°W 


If your compass heading is 75° 
What is your magnetic heading? 

7-5 Deviation Table 


TVMDC 


-West 

+East 


In going from true course or magnetic course to 
compass course, you add westerly variation and/or 
deviation and subtract easterly. When going from 
compass course to magnetic or true course you 
subtract westerly and add easterly deviation or 
variation. 


It is often a good idea to write this formula down 
when you are going to use it. Let's take an example: 


128 






assume the true eourse from your present position 
to a desired destination is 095°, and the variation 
is 14°40'E. Then write out the formula and known 
error as follows: 


T 

095 


V M 
15E 


D C 


Subtraeting the easterly variation by formula, the 
magnetic course would then be 080°. You would 
then have: 


T V M D C 

095 15E 080 

Assume that your deviation table shows a deviation 
of 4°W for a magnetic heading of 75° (as close as 
we can come to 080°). You can then finish your 
formula as follows: 


Piloting Instruments 

The basic items necessary for piloting consist of 
charts of all the areas in which you do your boating 



T V M D C 

095 15E 080 4W 084 

Your compass course then becomes 084°. You can 
go from compass course to true course simply by 
reversing the minus and plus signs for variation 
and deviation. Although this method of calcula¬ 
tion has taken a long time to explain, once the 
formula is learned the calculation can be done 
easily as a mental problem. 


r 


SHIP'S HEAD 


i 

COMPASS 

NORTH 



MAGNETIC 

NORTH 



TRUE NORTH 






A 


7-6 Naming Directions 


and a compass suitable to your boat. In order to 
plot a course on a chart and determine the direc¬ 
tion of that course, some method of drawing a 
straight line and determining direction on the chart 
must be added. A set of parallel rules will serve 
both purposes. A course protractor will also do a 
good job. On most small boats an arm-type course 
protractor is much easier to use than are parallel 
rulers. Some arm-type protractors have distance 
scales on the arm that match the most commonly 
used coastal chart scales. The alternative is to add 
a pair of dividers to your kit. These dividers, a 
compass, parallel rules, several sharp pencils, and 
a soft eraser, are all you will really need in order to 
plot a course on a chart. There are other piloting 
instruments that are handy to have, and in some 
cases are highly desirable, if they fit your boat and 
your type of boating. 

Sounding Devices 

In some waters an old fashioned lead line with 
a tallow pocket in the bottom of the lead will be 
helpful in determining the depth of the water and 
the nature of the bottom as an aid in locating your 
position. In other waters, a good cane pole or boat 
hook is sufficient for an immediate sounding de¬ 
vice, especially on small boats in shallow waters. 

The fathometer, an electronic depth finder, is 


129 





useful in deeper waters. It warns of shallowing 
bottom and can help determine your position if 
you check the water depth on a chart. A fathometer 
can be used to run along the edge of a dredged 
channel in a fog. This serves the dual purposes of 
guiding and keeping you on the edge of the chan¬ 
nel away from larger vessels which may still be 
moving in the middle of the channel. 



7-8 Sounding the Bottom 


Logs and Speedometers 

A log is an instrument that indicates distance 
run. The most common is the "taffrail log”, so 
named because on old sailing ships the readout 
portion was attached to the taffrail. It is composed 
of three major parts: (1) a distance readout, usu¬ 
ally one or two dials; (2) a rotor (spinner) similar 
to a streamlined propeller and; (3) a log line. The 
boat’s forward motion causes the rotor, which is 
trailed behind the boat, to spin. The log line trans¬ 
mits the revolutions to a set of gears within 
the readout device, which activates the distance 
pointers. Taffrail logs, generally, tend to over-read 
when going into a sea and under-read when going 
with the sea. 

There are many types of marine speedometers 
available to the boatman. It is most important to 
remember that all marine speedometers measure 


speed through the water. Corrections for set and 
drift of the current must be made in order to 
determine speed over the bottom. Speedometers 
• should be calibrated when installed, and checked 
periodically. Some speedometer manufacturers offer 
an accessory which computes the distance run. An 
alternative to having a log or speedometer is to 
construct a speed curve for your boat. 



7-9 Speedometer 


The Speed Curve 
Speed, Time and Distance 

The formula (Distance = Speed x Time) can 
be used to determine boat speed for any given 
engine speed. In the formula distance is expressed 
in nautical or statute miles, and time is expressed 
in hours. Since it is easier to express time in 
minutes than in hours, the constant 60 is inserted 
into the formula which then becomes: 

^ Speed X time (minutes) 

Distcincc — 

the other two forms are: 

e ^ j distance x 60 
^ ^ ~ time (minutes) 

ryn. /■ 1 . \ distance x 60 

Time (minutes) =-j- 

speed 

One word of caution—If distance is measured in 
nautical miles, your speed is expressed in knots. 
If you measure your distance in statute miles, your 
speed is then expressed as miles per hour. If you 


130 









learn one form of the equation the others can 
be derived from it; or you can copy all three forms 
along with TVMDC on small cards. Always keep 
one card on the boat and take the other to classes, 
exams or any other place you may be working 
piloting problems. 

Constructing a Speed Curve. 

The speed, time and distance formulas (page 
128) can be used to construct a speed curve. This 
is a chart or graph which shows speed through the 
water for any engine speed (rpm). Each boat has a 
different speed curve. This is a typical speed curve 



800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 

RPM’S 

7-10 A Typical Speed Curve 


for a displacement type cruiser. In the example, the 
distance between buoys was measured on the chart 
as .85 miles. The method shown here is applicable 
to your own boat. The data for the curve was 
gathered by running both ways over a known dis¬ 
tance at various engine rpm’s, noting the elapsed 


Speed Trial Tabulation Over Measured Mile 


RPM 

N-S 

S-N 

Average 

Speed 

Current 

Time 

Speed 

Time 

Speed 


800 

6m 47s 

8.85 

8m 32s 

7.03 

7.94 

.91 

1000 

5m 46s 

10.41 

7m 31s 

7.98 

9.18 

1.23 

1200 

5m 01s 

11.96 

6m 46s 

8.87 

10.41 

1.55 

1400 

4m 28s 

13.43 

6m 13s 

9.65 

11.54 

1.89 

1600 

4m 03s 

14.82 

5m 47s 

10.38 

12.6 

2.22 

1800 

3m 42s 

16.22 

5m 01s 

11.96 

14.09 

2.13 

2000 

3m 31s 

17.06 

4m 53s 

12.29 

14.67 

2.39 

2200 

3m 24s 

17.64 

4m 41s 

12.81 

15.22 

2.42 


time with a stop watch. After calculating the 
over-the-bottom speeds each way and averaging 
each pair of answers to offset possible wind and 
current factors, the net result establishes the 
“through-the-water” speed for each rpm setting. 
Do not average the times since this will not give 
the same results. A smooth curve drawn through 
the plotted points on the graph completes the 
project. 

Using a Speed Curve 

By using a speed curve, you can select a suitable 
rpm for any given water conditions and have a fair 
idea of your through-the-water speed. In adverse 
conditions, an estimate will have to be made of the 
effect of wind or current on your through the water 
speed to arrive at the actual over-the-bottom speed. 

Determining ETA 

If you know how far you have to go (obtained 
from the chart) and how fast you are going (from 
the speed curve) you can determine how long it will 
take to reach your destination. For example, if your 
destination is 22 miles away and your speed is 8 
knots, you can determine that it will take 165 
minutes (2 hours 45 min.) as follows: 

distance x 60 

Time in minutes =- 

speed 

22x60 

Time =- 

8 

1320 

"" 8 

Time = 165 minutes (2 hours & 45 minutes) 

All that is necessary then is to add 2 hours 45 
minutes to the time of departure to determine 
when you should arrive. However, this method of 
determining ETA does not take into account the 
effects of wind and/or cunent and therefore is only 
approximate. 

The Radio Direction Finder 

One final instrument which is useful to the off¬ 
shore fisherman and cruising boatman is the radio 
direction finder or RDF. For those who actually 
do a lot of offshore sailing, this is a most useful 


7-11 Speed Table 


131 












































electronic aid. Some verv fine ones are available 
at a modest price. 

Full instructions are usually provided with the 
instrument and should be studied carefully. Briefly, 
the procedure for operating an RDF is as follows; 
The instrument is placed with the lubber's line 
parallel with the keel. The 0° point of the azimuth 
scale is then set on the lubber’s line. The radio 
bearings recorded will be relative bearings and must 
be added to the vessel’s course at the time the 
bearing is taken. To obtain a bearing, the following 
steps should be followed: 

(1) Select a station which has a known loca¬ 
tion 

(2) Tune the set for maximum signal strength 

(3) Rotate the antenna to obtain the null or 
weakest signal (usually indicated on a 
meter) 

(4) Call “mark” to the helmsman (helmsman 
notes the compass heading) 

(5) Read the relative bearing indicated on the 
RDF 

The bearing obtained will be either the bearing 
towards the station or its reciprocal. Most RDF’s 
have an additional “sense” antenna which assists 
in identifying the correct bearing as opposed to the 
reciprocal bearing. Most RDF’s have three bands: 
a low frequency band covering the Coast Guard 
RDF stations and the aero beacons; the standard 
broadcast band; and the marine 2 to 3 megaHertz 
band. The Coast Guard low frequency stations will 
give the most accurate readings, but any station 
whose transmitter can be located on the chart will 
give a usable reading. 

However, before you decide that this is the aid 
you must have, let’s take a look at the other side of 
the coin. Your RDF is 'Subject to its own form of 
deviation errors, caused principally by re-radiation 
of the incoming radio signal from metallic objects 
aboard your boat. This could cause dangerous errors 
in these bearings. Hence an RDF deviation card is 
a must. Further, radio bearings are not as accurate 
as visual bearings, and are usually subject to at least 
a 3° plus or minus error. 

Properly used, the RDF is a useful aid to naviga¬ 
tion. Improperly used, it can be dangerous, so tem¬ 


per your enthusiasm with some cold calculation. 
Will you take the time and trouble to calibrate your 
set and learn to use it properly in good weather 
before you need it at night in bad weather? 

Marine Charts 

To travel with relative peace of mind while boat¬ 
ing, it is necessary to be familiar with the area. 
When in your “home waters” your own knowledge 
and experience will probably enable you to miss the 
shallow spots and any other obstacles that exist. 
Outside of your home waters, however, it is a dif¬ 
ferent story. Just as you need a road map on un¬ 
familiar highways, you need a nautical chart to 
help you on unfamiliar waters. While a road map 
will show you approximate locations of items such 
as airports and parks (landmarks) a chart will show 
you the exact position of those major landmarks 
which are visible from the water. Later you will be 
shown how to use these landmarks to determine 
your position on the chart. 

A chart also shows channels and the locations of 
the aids to navigation discussed in the previous 
chapter. The depth of water, the composition of 
the bottom, clearance under bridges and other 
useful information is also shown. 



7-12 Descriptive Portion o1 Chart 1210 


132 











Learning to Read a Chart 

Your class may be instructed on your local chart, 
however. Chart No, 1210TR is often used for in¬ 
structional purposes. This specially printed “train¬ 
ing Chart" is a very good example of a coastal area 
chart. As an added dividend much of the material 
shown on Chart #1 has been reproduced for you 
on the back of this chart. Spend as much time as 
you can studying this material. If you do not have 
’^‘IZIO TR (note that this is not the regular issue 
1210 Chart), then by all means secure a copy of 
Nautical Chart Symbols and Abbreviations—Chart 
from your chart source. 

Time spent studying either of these references 
will add greatly to your ability to read and under¬ 
stand your local chart and any other chart you mav 
have occasion to use. Before using a chart for the 
first time, there are several items of essential in¬ 
formation which should always be determined. 
Some of these are: the unit of depth measurement 
(either feet or fathoms), the scale, the limits of 
coverage and restricted areas, all special notes and 
the date of the chart. 

One thing to keep in mind at all times is that 
charts can never be 100% accurate. Lights on aids 
to navigation may be extinguished; buoys can drift 
or be dragged out of position. There are numerous 
occurrences that can affect the accuracy of a chart. 
For this reason, the prudent mariner uses a chart 
as an aid and not as an infallible source. 


It is extremely important to use an up-to-date 
chart. Without a current chart you may be ignorant 
of the existence of new underwater obstructions 



NOTICE - The U. S. Department of Commerce, Environmental Science Services 
Administration, Weather Bureau, Boston, Massachusetts, advises that the visual 
storm warning display station located at the U. S. Coast Guard (Winter Island) 
Air Station, Salem, Massachusetts, was terminated 1 September 1970. 

Approximate position: 62*31.6*N., 70*52.2'W. 

Reference: LNM 15 (CG Boston) 15 April 1970. 

MASSACHUSETTS - Boston Harbor - President Roads - The New England Aquarium. 
Boston, Massachusetts, advises that NEW ENGLAND AQUARIM POLLUTION LIGHTED BUOY 
(IL No. 640.61) an orange and white toroid shaped buoy showing a flashing white 
light every 11 seconds has been permanently established about 260 yards 095* 
from Deer Island Light (IL No. 660). (Private Aid) 

Approximate position: 62*20'23"N., 70*57'09W. 

C6GS Charts: 266, 266-SC, 268. 268SC. 

Reference: LNM 31 (CG Boston) 5 August 1970. 

RHODE ISLAND - Rhode Island Sound - Narragansett Bay Appraoch - AMERICA'S 
CUP RACES, sponsored by the NEW YORK YACHT CLUB, will be held dally commencing 
about 1100 on 15 September and continuing until one contended wins four races. 
Races will be within a 5 mile radius of AMERICA'S CUP RACE LIGHTED GONG BUOY 
AC (IL No. 79.21) located 7 miles 163* from Brenton Reef Light. Participants 
will be two 12 meter sailing vessels the "GRETEL 11" representing Australia, 
and the "INTREPID" representing the United States. 

The race will be patrolled by U. S. Coast Guard patrol craft. 

Mariners are requested to exercise caution in this area and to stand 
clear of sailing vessels participating in these races. 

Special Local Regulations for the 1970 America's Cup Races Issued by the 
Coomander, First Coast Guard District are enclosed for the information of 

EXAMPLE OF "NOTICE" 


such as shoals, wrecks, or new, moved, or discon¬ 
tinued aids to navigation. Charts may be kept up 
to date by making corrections listed in the regularly 
issued “Notice to Mariners" and “Local Notice to 
Mariners." All charts printed by the National 
Ocean Survev (formerly the Coast and Geodetic 
Survev) are dated. The date is located in the lower 
left hand corner of the chart. The edition number 
is printed next to the date in the following manner: 
12th ED., June 10/70. When an edition is revised, 
the date of revision is also shown: 12 ED., June 
10/70; Revised 4/4/71. 

A new edition makes all previous printings ob¬ 
solete. A revised edition, however, does not make 
previous printings of the same edition obsolete. 
When the 13th edition of a chart is printed, all 
printings of the 12th edition will become obsolete. 


7-14 Large and Small Scale Charts 

Charts are made in different forms for different 
purposes. Large scale charts (up to a scale of about 
1:20,000) cover a relatively small area and are used 


URGE SCALE 



^ ; - i i' ~ m i l m i t il u i .. . 


Scales 1:98,000 1:40.000 
afi4 larger 


SMALL SCALE 



Scales LIOO.QOI-ltimili 
aitd smallmr 


7-13 Local Notice to Mariners 


133 





















to show local features such as harbors and channels. 
Small scale charts (average scale is about 1:1,200,- 
000) cover a relatively large area and are used to 
cover great distances as in sailing charts used for 
transoceanic voyages. In between these extremes, 
other scales are used whieh best suit the purpose of 
portraying a section of coastline or an area such as a 
large bay or sound. We also have some very excel¬ 
lent aids to small boat navigation for popular areas 
which are called Small Craft Charts. These are de¬ 
signated by the initials “SC” after the chart num¬ 
ber. The Small Craft series is published in folder 
form. In addition to being conveniently sized for 
the small boat operator, these folders include con¬ 
densed tide tables, wind scales, time and source of 
weather broadcasts as well as other useful nuggets 
of local information. Most small craft charts are 
identical to regular eharts, the only difference being 
that they are folded and placed in a folder. If this 
is the case, both charts will bear the same number 
but on the small craft chart, the number will be 
followed by the initials “SC.” Other small craft 
charts are completely original. Consult the cata¬ 
logue at your chart source to determine the charts 
available for your area. 

Projections 

There is an inherent problem in representing the 
spherical shape of the earth on the flat surface of a 
chart. Four commonly used methods (projections) 
of showing the earth on a chart are: 

1. Mercator projection: used for coastal and 
sailing charts as well as large scale harbor 
charts. In the maritime world this is our 
most important and most frequently used 
projection form for coastal areas. 

2. Poly conic projection: used by the Corps of 
Engineers and the Lake Survey for the 
charts of the Great Lakes and other north¬ 
ern lakes under their jurisdiction. 

3. Gnomonic projection: used for ocean sail¬ 
ing because of ease in plotting great circle 
courses (shortest distance between two 
points on earth). 

4. Lambert Conformal: used for many air 
navigation charts. The last two are not used 
in small craft piloting and will not be dis¬ 
cussed further. 


The basic advantage of the Mercator projection 
is that all vertical lines representing meridians of 
longitude and the horizontal lines representing the 
parallels of latitude intersect at right angles (90°). 
This means that when we draw a course line on 
the chart from point A to point B, that line crosses 
all meridians at the same angle. This so called 
“rhumb” line is easy to draw since it is simply a 
straight line. From compass roses con\'eniently 
located on the ehart it is easy to determine the 
direction of the rhumb line. If w'e transfer this 



Angles are correctly represented Great circle appeal? oirved 
Rhumb line appears as straight line 
Distortion in BOTH directions 


7-15 Mercator Projection 


course line to a globe and cross all of our meridians 
at the same angle, we would find that our course 
line is no longer straight but instead is a curve 
spiraling to the pole. For short distances (a few 
hundred miles) the extra length of our curved 
course line over the length of a great circle route, 
whieh is a straight line on our spherical earth, 
would be negligible. By understanding our rhumb 
line courses, we can use them without further con¬ 
cern and enjoy the simplicity of Mercator naviga¬ 
tion. 



7-16 Polyconic Projection 


134 








Latitude and Longitude 

There has long been a system, based on the 
geometry of a sphere, whereby the location of any 
point on the surface of the earth can be described 
by two coordinates. These two coordinates are 
called latitude and longitude. Latitude is the North- 
South coordinate and longitude is the East-West 
coordinate. 

For example, the coordinates of Key West, 
Florida, are 24°33'N, 8r49'W. This is read as 
twenty-four degrees, thirty-three minutes North 
(latitude); Eighty-one degrees, forty-njne minutes 
west (longitude). 

Latitude is measured from 0° to 90°, with 0° 
being at the equator and 90° at the poles. The 
direction from the equator is indicated by a letter, 
N for north of the equator (nearer the North Pole) 
and S for south of the equator. 

Longitude is measured from 0° to 180,° with 0° 
being located on the line drawn from the North 
Pole to the South Pole, passing through Green¬ 
wich, England and 180° being on the opposite side 
of the earth. The International Date Line runs 
along this 180° line. The direction from Greenwich 
is indicated by a letter, E for east of Greenwich 
(towards Europe) and W for west of Greenwich 
(towards America). All positions (locations) in 
North America are in north latitude and west 
longitude. Positions are often defined to the nearest 
tenth of a minute (.1); for example 33° 28.1' N. 

Describing Position by Latitude and Longitude 

Knowing your position is important but being 
able to describe that position to someone else is 
also important, especially in an emergency. Unless 
you are very close to an identifiable landmark or 
aid to navigation, the best way of describing your 
position is by the coordinates discussed earlier, 
latitude and longitude. 

Measuring Distance on a Mercator Chart 

Distance on a Mercator chart is always measured 
on the latitude scale. This is the scale appearing on 
the left and right sides of a chart. One nautical 
mile equals one minute (T) of latitude (a mile a 
minute). Since there are 60 minutes in one degree. 


one degree of latitude equals 60 nautical miles. 
Since there are 360° in a circle, the circumference 
of the earth is 21,600 nautical miles. By dividing 
this figure into the circumference of the earth 
established by international agreement, we find that 
a nautical mile is 6076.1 feet long. This is approxi¬ 
mately Vs longer than the 5280 foot statute mile. 

One characteristic of a Mercator chart is that the 
size of areas is distorted. Because of this distortion, 
one minute of latitude will appear to get larger 
when moving away from the equator. On large scale 
charts, up to about 1:80,000, it makes very little 
practical difference where we measure along the 
latitude scale, for the change in scale from top to 
bottom of the chart is very slight. However, for 
smaller scale charts covering larger areas the dif¬ 
ference in the length of a minute of latitude is 
easy to find from top to bottom of the chart, and it 
becomes a factor in accurate chart work. Therefore, 
it is good practice to make it a habit to always 
measure at about the mid latitude of the course 
line on all charts. 



7-17 Measuring Along the Latitudes Scale 


Measuring Distance On A Polyconic Chart 

On a Polyconic chart, distances which are gen¬ 
erally in a north-south direction can be taken 
directly off the latitude scale since the length of 
one minute of latitude appears the same length on 
every part of the chart. Distances which are more 
east-west cannot be measured accurately using lati¬ 
tude and it is best to use the bar scale for statute 
miles which appears on all Great Lakes charts. To 
avoid possible confusion when piloting, all distances 


135 



on a polyconic chart should be measured in statute 
miles using the bar seales. 

Obtaining Charts 

Frequently eharts ean be obtained loeally through 
marine dealers who handle them as a serviee to 
their boating eustomers. There is no assuranee that 
these will be up to date, so always look at the date 
of issue stamped on the ehart by the offieial ageney 
and be your own judge as to whether you want that 
eopy. In most areas it is safest to replaee eharts at 
least every year or every two years at the latest. 
Generally, new editions of Small Craft charts are 
produeed on an annual basis. In most major ports 
you will find an offieial ehart ageney that handles 
marine eharts and other publieations for the ship¬ 
ping trade. For those without aeeess to these 
sourees, the government sourees are as follows: 

Other Published Aids To Navigation 

We mentioned other publieations available from 
ehart agents. Some of these you will want to have; 
some you will probably have little use for. We list 
them briefly, with the prime source in ease you can¬ 
not buy them loeally. 

1. Chart #]—in pamphlet form. Previously 
mentioned. 

Source: National Oceanic and Atmospheric 
Administration (NOAA) 

2. Coast Pilots—\n eight volumes—See ehart 
eatalog for listing areas eovered in eaeh 
volume. These eontain mueh information 
essential to the eruising boatman, or to one 
who requires detailed information of an 
area. 

Souree: NOAA 

3. Tide Tables—In four volumes. 

Souree. NOAA 

4. Tidal Current Tables—In two volumes. 
Souree. NOAA 

Items 3, and 4 are espeeially neeessary to east and 
west eoast boatmen, partieularly in the upper lati¬ 
tudes where tides and eurrents beeome a major 
faetor in navigation. 

5. Light Lists—In five volumes. Published by 
the Coast Guard. 

Souree: Superintendent of Doeuments, 


Government Printing Offiee, Washington, 
D. C. 

6. Intracoastal Waterway—In two volumes. 
Souree: Superintendent of Doeuments, 
Washington, D. C. 

7. Notice to Mariners. The Loeal Notiee to 
Mariners is of most use to the small boat 
operator. 

Souree: Apply to your loeal Coast Guard 
Distriet Commander. 

8. Rules of the Road—In three Volumes, as 
given below. Published by the Coast Guard. 
Source: Superintendent of Doeuments, 
Washington, D. C. 

CG-169 International-Inland Rules 
CG-172 Great Lakes 
CG-184 Western Rivers 

Plotting 

To eomplete our study of piloting we need to 
take the things we have learned about eharts, com¬ 
passes, and piloting instruments and put them to¬ 
gether in aetual praetiee. In any piloting situation, 
the answers to be determined are usually coneerned 
with either establishing a eourse line or determin¬ 
ing position. The determination of position may be 
the whole problem, but most of the time position 
is only a point neeessary to the fixing of a eourse 
line to another destination. True eourses are always 
used in plotting on ships and it is good praetiee to 
use only true eourses on your eharts. It is aecepted 
praetiee amongst all experieneed boatmen and is 
most neeessary in the plotting of relative bearings, 
and in the positioning of your vessel. 

Time 

Time is displayed on a ehart by using the 24 hour 
system. In this system the first two digits tell the 
hour (01 to 23) and the last two digits give the 
minutes (00 to 59). Midnight is 0000. Thus 
9:45 AM is written as 0945, while 9:45 PM is 
written 2145. 

Plotting Symbols 

There are several terms and symbols whieh are 
used in piloting. You should be eompletely familiar 
with these before proceeding. 

—A "‘line of position” (LOP) is a line, from a 


136 


known position, along which a vessel is presumed 
to be located. LOP’s are commonly obtained by 
taking a bearing on a charted object. A line of 
position is labeled with the time and bearing to 
the object. 

It is indicated on a chart as: 

0930 

100 

When a LOP is obtained by sight along a range 
only the time is shown, as: 0930 

—A “/ix” is an accurate position, usually obtained 
by crossing 2 or more LOPs. A fix is indicated on 
a chart as: 

0945 FIX 

—A '‘running fix” is a position determined by cross¬ 
ing 2 LOPs, which were obtained at different 
times. A running fix is indicated on a chart as: 

0945 R FIX 

—A “DR Position” is a position determined by 
applying a vessel’s course(s) and speed(s) to the 
last accurate position. A DR position is indicated 
on a chart as 

0945 DR 

—An "estimated position” is the most probable 
position for a vessel, determined from bearings of 
questionable accuracy. It is often a DR position 
modified by the best information possible. An 
estimated position is indicated on a chart as: 


sition, this would be done and these positions 
would be plotted and compared with our DR 
position for the same time. TLis will tell us much 
about our progress. 

The comparison of the DR positions with the 
actual positions will help us arrive at some ver\' 
valuable conclusions regarding the effect of wind, 
current, and steering error on our progress. Na¬ 
turally, one fix will not answer any question except 
whether or not we are on course, but a series of 
positions compared with the DR plot will provide 
these answers. However these calculations are be¬ 
yond the scope of this text. As we have indicated 
previously, this type of piloting is more practical 
in cruising than in day sailing. 

Plotting DR 

Outside of most harbors there is a buoy or some 
landmark to mark the entrance to the harbor from 
which we can take departure, and another, toward 
which we can sail. If we draw a line through, these 
points on our chart, we have laid off our course line. 
Be sure that there are no physical obstructions 
shown on the chart in the way of a course line. 
Changes in course are necessary sometimes, to 
avoid these obstructions. 

If we .are using parallel rules, we can walk 
the course line up to the nearest compass rose 
and read the direction of our course on the 
ring of the rose. If we are using a pivoted arm 
course protractor we would place the pivot point 
over the point of departure and align the horizontal 
or vertical lines of the protractor head with the 
nearest meridian or parallel on the chart. Then by 


0945 EP 

The Plot—The Dead Reckoned Plot 

If our cruise is to be of considerable leneth, it is 
customary practice to set up our DR track. This is 
simply a plot of our course marked with hourly 
positions, determined purely from speed based on 
engine RPM and our speed curve. For sailing craft, 
this would have to be speed as estimated by some 
form of log or speedometer. 

If along our course, there are certain landmarks 
from which we can accurately determine our po¬ 



7-18 Parallel Rules 


137 


swinging the arm to align with the course line, the 
true course angle can be read on the angular scale 
of the protractor. 

If you are using a swing-arm course protractor, 
you must apply the local variation to arrive at the 
magnetic course. Then apply the deviation, if any, 
to arrive at the ship’s heading—the compass course. 
Remember we never plot compass or magnetic 
courses. We plot all courses as true and by mathe¬ 
matical (TVMDC) application we arrive at our 
compass course. 

The true course is indicated on the chart. 

After your course has been set, it should be 
standard operating procedure for you to mark off 
the distance to be run with your dividers. Estimat¬ 
ing the speed of your boat from your speed curve, 
and knowing the distance to be run, it will be very 
easy to estimate your time of arrival at your next 
reference point. This procedure is a must in periods 
of low visibility, such as fog. 



7-19 Calculating Distance of Run 


The “rules” for when to update a DR are: 

1. Every hour on the hour 

2. Whenever there is a course and/or speed 
change 

3. Whenever a FIX, R FIX or an EP are ob¬ 
tained. 

Additionally, a new course line is started from every 
FIX or R FIX. Also, more frequent plotting is 
appropriate when in channels or other restricted 
waters. 


Btofl rw 



% 

00#0 DR 

W30 OB 






IMfl OR 


1- 


mOR 

te: 




7-20 Typical DR Plot 


n 

Ifttt _ 

Tree Cotiiw 0St* 
Rgiativt Bearinf BS2® 
True Befliinf 11B® 

• «•'«** j 

7-21 Converting Relative Bearing to True Bearing 
Bearings 

A bearing is the horizontal direction of one ob¬ 
ject from another. It is usually expressed as the 
angular difference between a reference direction 
and the given direction. In navigation, true north 
is generally used as the reference direction and the 
given direction is expressed in angles measured 
clockwise through 360°. 

The instrument used for measuring this angle is 
called a pelorus, which is a non-magnetic, rotative 
compass card with a sighting vane. In application, 
the object which is to be used for the bearing is 
sighted through the vane and the value of the 
angle is read directly from the card. 

Depending upon the reference direction, the 
bearing is either relative or true. If the 000° mark 
on the pelorus is parallel to the keel line, the bear¬ 
ing is relative. If the 000° is pointing toward true 
north, the bearing thus obtained is a true bearing. 


Tw« Cmt** 


r 

Besfui^ 


138 







7-22 Pelorus 


Plotting A Line Of Position (LOP) 

From any given charted landmark or aid to 
navigation, on which a bearing has been taken, a 
dotted line is drawn in TRUE direction to intersect 
yo'ur course line. By adding or substracting 180° 
from the given direction you can then plot your 
LOP with the time in four digits above the line 
and the true direction in three digits below it. You 
know that your vessel is somewhere on this line. 

One word of caution: ALWAYS correct a com¬ 
pass bearing to a true bearing through the 
TVMDC formula before plotting. 

Plotting A Fix 

A FIX is obtained by taking and plotting cross 
bearings on two or more charted objects. In the 
diagram 7-23 entitled “CROSS BEARINGS — 
TWO LANDMARKS,” assume that you are pro¬ 
ceeding in an easterly direction. At 1215 you sight 
a monument off your port bow and over your 
compass you take a bearing on it. Remember, this 
is a compass bearing and therefore must be cor¬ 
rected to a true bearing by using the TVMDC 
formula. This true bearing of 053° is then plotted 
on your chart. Time is shown above the line, and 
the bearing below the line. Also at 1215, you sight 
a water tank over your port quarter, and after 
making the proper corrections, you find that it 
bears 312° from your vessel. This second bearing 
is plotted on your chart. Each of these plotted lines 


is a line of position (LOP) and in each instance 
you are somewhere on that line of position. Obvi¬ 
ously, you are at the point where these two lines 

P' CROSS BEARINGS- '1 

TWO LANDMARKS , 



7-23 Cross Bearings—Two Landmarks 

intersect, which establishes your 1215 FIX, provid¬ 
ing you plotted it correctly. 

Another word of caution: in correcting your com¬ 
pass bearing for deviation ,you MUST use the 
deviation correction for the ship’s heading. 

In labeling the bearing as to angle value and 
time, we refer you to the material relative to plot¬ 
ting symbols earlier in this chapter. A new DR line 
would be started from this fix. 

Three Bearing Fix 

Whenever possible it is best to obtain three 
bearings when fixing your position. 

In this case you plot your FIX position in the 
center of the triangle formed by the bearings. Again, 
a new DR line would be started from this FIX. 



139 


7-24 Three Bearing Fix 






For best results always pick objects which will 
give the best angle. For two-bearing fixes, the angle 
of intersection should be as close to 90 degrees as 
possible. For three-bearing fixes this angle should be 
near 60®. (See 7-24 Three Bearing Fix.) 

Advancing An LOP 

In order to allow for the difference in time we 
must “advance” the first LOP along the DR plot. 
The distance advanced is equal to the distance run 
from the time the first LOP is obtained to the 
time the second LOP is obtained. 


The result is a line on the chart which is parallel 
to the first LOP and moved forward along the 
DR plot. (See 7-25 Advancing An LOP.) 



When advancing an LOP, distance A equals distance B 

7-25 Advancing An LOP 
Plotting A Running FIX 


It is often impossible to obtain two bearings at 
the same time. When this happens we must obtain 
a running Fix (R FIX) which uses two LOP’s ob¬ 
tained at different times. 


RUNNING FIX 



Completing the R FIX 

The running fix is obtained by crossing the ad¬ 
vanced LOP with another LOP. Again, a new DR 
plot is started from the fixed position. 

Since this process depends on the accuracy of 
your dead reckoning, an LOP should not normally 
be advanced for more than 30 minutes, although, 
in some cases, it may be necessary to exceed this 
time. 

This concludes our coverage of piloting. For 
further study, the following books are recom¬ 
mended: 


(1) Piloting and Dead Reckoning, 

H. H. Shufeldt and G. D. Dunlap, 
U.S. Naval Institute 

(2) Dutton's Navigation and Piloting 
G. D. Dunlap and H. H. Shufeldt 
U. S. Naval Institute 

(3) American Practical Navigator 
N. Bowditch 

U. S. Navy Hydrographic Office 


140 






CHAPTER 8 


Marine Engines 


Introduction 

The gasoline powered marine engine has been 
used as a propulsion unit for many years; in fact, 
history records its use in the 6000 mile voyage of a 
35' craft in 1911, only eight years after the Wright 
brothers first engine powered heavier than air flight. 
In the ensuing years, the gasoline engine has become 
the source of power used most by small craft. In 
1972, statistics indicate that there were more than 
700,000 inboard boats in use, including auxiliary 
powered sailboats and documented boats; some 
800,000 diesel and gasoline engines, including those 
converted from automotive engines; 7,400,000 out¬ 
board engines; and some 300,000 inboard-outdrive 
units. The estimated cost of these engines in use in 
1972 exceeds the original cost of the Pentagon. 

This chapter will be devoted to the care and 
maintenance of the ’’brute that powers” the small 
craft fleet. With this thought in mind, let us consider 
that no part of a boat is more important than the 
engine. A good skipper will be sure that the engine is 
properly maintained and cared for at all times. If 
neglected, many long hours of hard work will 
inevitably result. To properly maintain the engine, a 
place should be set aside for tools and spare parts. 
These should be replenished as needed and every 
spare part should be in good working order. 

The engine and engine compartment should be 
kept clean at all times. Regular cleaning requires 
little effort, but if this care is neglected, a difficult 
job will follow. Never leave oily rags or papers lying 
around - they could create a hazardous situation. 
Keep the engine compartment clean and well 
ventilated and the possibility of fire or explosion 
will be minimized. For boating safety, ventilation 
of the engine and fuel compartment is one of the 
most important factors to be observed. 


One other word on safety - safety for others, and 
for your protection. NEVER leave the keys in the 
ignition switch after the engine has been stopped. 
There is always the possibility of accidental ignition 
(such as a child, or adult for that matter, falling 
against the key). The boat might also be stolen easily 
if someone can get in quickly and crank the engine. 

Having considered several safety factors relating 
to marine engines, we will now proceed with the 
study of engines. 

Almost all pleasure craft today are powered by 
engines. This is as true of sailboats as it is of 
powerboats since, except for sailing dinghys and 
certain small “class” sailboats, most sailboats are 
equipped with auxiliary engines. 

Engines found on pleasure craft may be “in¬ 
board” or “outboard,” in the sense that an inboard 
engine is installed within the hull while an outboard 
engine is installed on the transom (outboard of the 
hull) or mounted within an engine well. But, 
regardless of the method of mounting, all marine 
engines have a great deal in common. They are all 
intended to do the same job - to provide power to 
turn the propeller, which moves the boat. 

This chapter will deal with internal combustion 
engines and will cover the theory of operation of the 
four-cycle and the two-cycle diesel and gasoline 
engines. Routine maintenance and trouble shooting 
are reviewed. 

All engines, except ramjets and rockets, are 
designed to convert an expanding gas into a rotating 
force. Let’s look at the basic operation of 
reciprocating engines. A reciprocating engine is an 
engine with a piston that moves up and down. All 
reciprocating engines have three basic parts. The 


141 


first part is a cylinder which acts like a bottle to hold 
the expanding gas. The second part is the piston 
which fits snugly into the cylinder and is pushed by 
the expanding gas. The third part is the crankshaft 
which connects to the piston by a connecting rod 
and converts the reciprocating, or up and down 
motion of the piston, into a rotary motion. The 
crankshaft works like the pedals on a bicycle to 
convert the up and down motion of your knees to 
the rotary motion of the sprocket. 


PISTON PIN CAP 
• PISTON 



PISTON PIN CAP 


8-1 Piston and Connecting Rod Parts 



8-2 The Crankshaft Action of a 
Treadle and Bandwheel 

There are several ways to produce an expanding 
gas. Steam and hot air have been used as well as the 
more common explosions of the hydrocarbon fuels, 
such as acetylene, propane, gasoline, and oils. 
Gasoline, when mixed in the right proportions with 
air, will explode. An electrical spark can ignite this 
explosive mixture and the resultant explosion is an 
expanding gas. Oil, when sprayed into hot air, will 
also explode. Diesel, when he designed his engine, 
used compression to generate enough heat 
(l,000°F) to cause an explosion when oil was 
sprayed into the hot air at the proper moment. The 
term “internal combustion engine” is used whenever 
expanding gases are generated and contained in a 
cylinder. 


Internal combustion reciprocating engines re¬ 
quire a proper mixture of fuel and air in order to 
run. 

Before we study the theory of operation, we 
should first know what is rneant by the terms “two- 
cycle” and “four-cycle.” An engine runs by repeating 
a series of explosions over and over again. A cycle 
includes all the steps that are required to create one 
explosion in a cylinder. In a two-cycle engine, the 
piston moves two strokes - one down and one up - to 
complete one cycle. In a four-cycle engine, the 
piston moves four strokes - down, up, down, and up. 


The Four-Cycle Engine 

Let’s start with the steps that are required to 
complete the cycle of a four stroke per cycle (four¬ 
cycle) gasoline engine. As the piston moves down in 
the cylinder for the first stroke, a vacuum is 
produced in the space above the piston. A valve (the 
intake valve) is timed to open at this instant, 
allowing an explosive mixture of gasoline and air to 
be drawn into the cylinder. This is the intake stroke. 
As the piston starts up on the second stroke, the 
intake valve closes, the cylinder is sealed, and the gas 
in the space above the piston is compressed. This is 
the compression stroke. Just before the piston starts 
down for the third stroke, an electrical spark - 
produced by the spark plug - ignites the explosive 
gas. The expansion of gas from the resultant 
explosion pushes the piston down. This is the power 
stroke. As the piston starts up in the fourth stroke, 
another valve (the exhaust valve) opens and the 
piston pushes the burnt gases out. This is the 
exhaust stroke. At the top of the exhaust stroke, the 
exhaust valve closes and the piston and cylinder are 
ready for the next four-stroke cycle. 

Four-cycle diesels are similar to the gasoline 
engines except as follows; the diesel intake stroke 
does not draw in a gas/air mixture, only air. The air 
is compressed in the second stroke, but at a much 
higher compression ratio, producing an intense 
heat. The heat (1,000° F) is much higher than the 
ignition point of the diesel fuel. When the diesel oil is 
sprayed into the hot air, by injectors which atomize 
the oil into a fine mist, the oil explodes forcing the 
piston down for the third stroke, the power stroke. 
The fourth stroke is the exhaust stroke. 


142 








8-3 Four-Stroke Cycle Engine 


8-4 Two-Stroke Cycle Engine 


The Two-Cycle Engine 

Two-cycle engines are harder to explain because 
the functions of intake, compression, power, and 
exhaust are not marked by each piston stroke, but 
may be combined. If we start with two-cycle diesels 
first, this will make it easier. We will begin the cycle 
immediately following the explosion. The piston is 
pushed down in the power portion of the stroke. 
Just before the piston reaches the bottom of the 
stroke, the exhaust passage is opened; then, the 
intake valve opens. Air which has already been 
partially compressed by a blower is forced past the 
intake valve into the cylinder. The incoming com¬ 
pressed air pushes out the burnt gases. Meanwhile, 
the piston has already started up on its second 
stroke. Halfway up, both valves close allowing the 
trapped air to be further compressed and heated. At 
the top of the stroke, the fuel is injected, explodes, 
and the cycle begins again. There are two reasons 
why compressed air is used in the two-cycle diesel; 
one is to help scavenge the exhaust gases and the 
other is to reduce the amount of compression 
required by the piston to achieve the final compres¬ 
sion. 


The two-cycle gasoline engine uses the same pre¬ 
compression technique; however, it is more com¬ 
plex than the diesel and a bit harder to explain. We 
shall consider the cycle function as a fuel flow, and 
interject, from time to time, the location of the 
piston as it travels through the strokes. There are 
two new things we should learn before we follow the 
flow path. The first new thing to consider is that a 
two-cycle gasoline engine has two working 
chambers. One chamber is the cylinder above the 
piston, with which we are already familiar. We will 
call this the upper chamber. The other chamber is 
located in the crankcase below the piston. We will 
call this the lower chamber. 

The lower chamber is connected directly to the 
carburetor through a one-way valve which allows 
the gas/ air mixture to be drawn into the chamber, 
but does not allow it to be pushed back. 

These two chambers operate simultaneously but 
will have to be considered individually as we trace 
the flow path. We will consider the cycle of only one 
piston. When an engine has more than one piston, 
each lower chamber is separate and sealed from the 


143 







































other chambers. The other new thing to consider is 
that the two-cycle gasoline engine does not have 
valves, as we saw on the previous engines, but ports. 
These ports are holes located in the sides of the 
upper chamber and are covered by the piston. These 
holes are covered until the piston is almost at the 
bottom of the stroke. 

Let’s trace the flowpath of the fuel through the 
two-cycle gasoline engine. As the piston moves up, 
the lower chamber becomes a vacuum, drawing an 
explosive gas/air mixture from the carburetor and, 
at the same time, an explosive charge of gas/air is 
being compressed in the upper chamber. At the top 
of the stroke, the compressed gas in the upper 
chamber is exploded, forcing the piston down. As 
the piston starts down, the mixture which is now 
trapped in the lower chamber is pressurized. Near 
the bottom of the stroke, the intake and exhaust 
ports are uncovered. The exhaust gases are forced 
out and are replaced by the incoming pressurized 
explosive misture. As the piston starts up, it closes 
the ports and a new cycle begins. 

Internal combustion engines generate heat and, 
because they have moving parts, require lubrica¬ 
tion. This means supplementary systems are re¬ 
quired to run the engine efficiently. 

Lubrication Systems 

Any material which rubs or slides against another 
surface will generate friction and heat. This friction 
can never be eliminated entirely; however, there are 
many ways to reduce the amount of friction 
generated. One of the most common ways is to 
provide a thin soft film between the two sliding 
parts. In engines, the most common fluid used for 
this film is oil. 

As there are many complex methods used to 
lubricate bearing surfaces, we shall cover only the 
most common found in marine engines. Engines are 
provided with channels or ducts which carry the oil 
to all moving parts in the engine. A pump is required 
to force the oil through these ducts. A reservoir of 
oil is located in a pan that is fastened beneath the 
engine. The oil is pumped from the lowest spot in the 
reservoir, the sump, through a screen that removes 
the large particles. Placed downstream of the pump 
there may be an oil cooler to remove the excess heat 
and a filter to remove the fine particles. On most 


engines, oil is ducted through the connecting rods 
and runs down the cylinder walls from the piston 
skirt. 



3 2 


1. OIL PAH 

2. SCREEN-OIL PUMP INTAKE 

3. PRESSURE OIL PUMP 

4. VALVE-PRESSURE RELIEF 

5. OIL STRAINER 

6. OIL COOLER 

8-5 Lubrication System 

In two-cycle gasoline engines, there is no oil 
reservoir, so the oil is mixed with the gasoline. The 
oil is suspended in the mixture as tiny droplets. 
When the gas/oil mixture is drawn into the 
crankcase, the gasoline, being more volatile, 
vaporizes, thus leaving some of the oil droplets to 
condense on the metalic surfaces. New oil is being 
supplied constantly; therefore, no filtering or cool¬ 
ing is required. 

Cooling Systems 

Water is the common agent used to cool marine 
engines. Some small outboards of two or three 
horsepower use air for cooling and are provided 
with fins to help dissipate the heat. Air-cooling is 
not efficient for larger engines except with the use of 
elaborate blowers requiring additional space and, if 
the exhaust system is run inboard, water cooling is 


7. OIL MANIFOLD IN CYLINDER BLOCK 

8. OIL FILTER 

9. BY-PASS VALVE 

1 0. BY-PASS AROUND STRAINER 
AND COOLER 


144 





























required for the exhaust manifolds and ducts. 
Marine engines may be cooled with raw sea water 
pumped in from outside the boat or with a closed 
fresh water cooling system similar to that used in 
cars. When raw sea water is used for cooling, only 
one pump is required. After the sea water passes 
through the engine, it is used to cool the exhaust 
manifolds and is discharged overboard with the 
exhaust. There are two ways to cool a closed fresh¬ 
water system. After the water is circulated through 
the engine by a water pump, it passes through a keel 
cooler, a type of radiator mounted outside on the 


hull of the boat, and is cooled by the sea water as the 
boat moves through the water. A separate sea-water 
pump is used to cool the exhaust manifolds and this 
water is discharged with the exhaust in the same 
duct. Keel coolers create a drag on the hull of the 
boat and may reduce the boat speed as much as two 
or three knots. If this loss of speed is a disadvantage, 
a heat exchanger may be used. The heat exchanger 
passes sea water over the cooling coils of the closed 
fresh-water system. The sea water that is pumped 
over the coils is then used to cool the exhaust 
manifolds and is discharged with the exhaust. 


WATER BY-PASS (ENGINE COLD) 



8-6 Water Cooling System 

145 



























Fuel Systems 

We have discussed explosive mixtures, but not 
how they are made. We will start with the simpler 
diesel systems. The fuel is pumped from the fuel 
tank through a coarse filter to remove large 
particles, then through a final filter, before entering 
the injector system. Each injector has a valve that 
not only passes the fuel to the injector, but also 
meters the amount to control the speed. In order to 
achieve a fine mist spray for complete combustion, 
the oil passes through an extremely fine hole in the 
injector at a very high pressure. The injectors are 
easily clogged, which means that extremely clean 
fuel and clean filters are essential. 

Filtering is also essential for gasoline engines; for, 
after the fuel is pumped from the fuel tank into the 
carburetor, it passes through jets with fine holes to 
atomize the fuel before it is mixed with air. The 
carburetor not only atomizes the fuel to ensure a 
complete mix, but also meters the proper amount of 
gas - for the amount of air available - to maintain an 
explosive mixture. 

Electrical System and Accessories 

If an engine could be started with a hand crank, 
the only accessories required would be a belt to drive 
the cooling water pump, and for a gasoline engine. 



8-7 Battery Ignition System 


an electrical source to fire the spark plugs. The high 
voltage required to arc across the spark plugs is 
supplied by either a magneto or a battery ignition 
system. In either system, low voltage is momentarily 
converted to high voltage at the proper instant. A 
magneto utilizes the rotating motion of a flywheel to 
generate and deliver to the spark plugs at the proper 
instant a high voltage pulse of electric current. 


On outboards with one or two cylinders, a 
magneto is the electrical source with separate 
circuits for each plug. Outboards with more 
cylinders have a more complicated magneto system 
or a battery ignition system. Large outboards 
require a starter motor and a battery for power. 
Some outboards have a generator or alternator to 
recharge the battery. 

Inboard engines have a battery ignition system or 
a magneto system. The battery supplies current for 
the spark plugs and also powers the starter motor. A 
generator or alternator is provided to continually 
recharge the battery. 

Because the cooling, lubrication, and electrical 
charging functions are so essential to the proper 
operation of engines, gauges are provided to 
monitor these functions. Make it a part of your 
underway routine to periodically check the gauges. 


Routine Check List 

When preparing to leave the dock, before casting 
off the lines, check the oil pressure and be sure the 
cooling water is circulating. If the water is not 
circulating, determine the cause immediately as 
overheating may develop and substantial damage 
could result. 

To ensure reliable operation of the engine after 
leaving the dock, the followingcheck list is provided 
to be used before leaving the dock. 

1. FUEL. Top off the fuel tank; don’t run out 
of fuel at sea. 

2. OIL. Dipstick should indicate oil level is 
within proper operating range. Don’t overfill 
beyond the top level indicator. 

3. HYDRAULIC DRIVETRANSMISSION. 
Check the oil level on the dipstick. Again, 
don’t overfill beyond the top level indicator. 

4. FAN BELTS. Replace if frayed; tighten if 
loose. Fan belts should not be too tight as 
excessive belt and bearing wear may result. 

5. WATER. Closed cooling systems - top off or 
fill to proper level. 

6. BATTERIES. Fill with distilled water to 
proper level. Check to see if they are fully 
charged. If a hydrometer is available, the 
cells should be checked for the proper 
gravity. 


146 



















7. BILGE BLOWERS. Ventilate at least 5 
minutes before starting the engine. 

8. ALARM SYSTEMS. There are many alarm 
systems available for monitoring the items 
above; however, these systems do not 
eliminate the need to check the gauges. 

9. GREASE CUPS. Keep clean and filled. 

10. FILTERS. Keep clean and change at 
frequency recommended by manufacturer’s 
operating manual. 

11. ENGINE. Permit the engine to warm up 
slowly. Don’t get underway with a cold 
engine. The result may soon be a breakdown 
of valves, pistons, bearings, etc. It is man¬ 
datory that the proper warm-up period be 
followed so that oil reaches all the moving 
parts. 

12. FUEL PUMP. Some engines are equipped 
with double diaphragm fuel pumps with a 
small sight glass indicator. If the sight glass 
contains fuel, one of the diaphragms has 
ruptured. The second diaphragm should 
continue to operate, supplying fuel to the 

, engine, as this is a back-up feature intended 
for emergency situations. If a ruptured 
diaphragm is indicated, the fuel pump should 
be replaced or repaired prior to getting 
underway. 

Inboard Marine Engine Trouble Shooting 

THE GOLDEN RULE to follow in locating 
engine trouble is not to make more than one 
adjustment at a time, and to attempt to crank the 
engine after each adjustment is completed. Consider 
how the engine operates, and attempt to determine 
the probable cause of any irregular operation, 
locating the trouble by the process of elimination. 
Remember that the cause usually is a simple one, 
rather than a mysterious and complicated one. 

ENGINE WILL NOT TURN OVER - check the 
battery with a hydrometer or voltmeter. A 
hydrometer reading of 1.275, or a voltmeter reading 
of 12-13 volts, will indicate a fully charged battery. 
If these are not available at the moment, make a test 
lamp. DO NOT short across battery terminals with 
tools, or solid wire, under any circumstances. A 
simple test lamp may be made from a double contact 
12 volt socket with pigtails or a 110 volt pigtail 
socket and 25 watt 12 volt bulb. A good battery will 


produce a bright light. Try to start the engine and 
observe. If the light does not dim at all, the starter is 
not being energized. If light goes out instantly, a 
loose or corroded battery terminal is indicated. If 
light dims and stays dim after starter switch is 
released, a weak battery is indicated. NEVER do 
anything that would cause a spark at the battery 
posts as an explosion could follow by igniting gas 
that occurs in battery cells under certain conditions. 

If the engine doesn’t start after the battery has 
been checked, the trouble may be in the starter 
switch. Inspect all the electrical connections to 
ensure that they are tightly secured. Test starter 
solenoid with a starter jumper, or listen for a 
clicking sound when starter switch is activated. A 
test lamp may also be placed across the small 
terminal and ground of the solenoid. It should light 
when starter switch is activated. If it does not light, 
check starter switch by placing a test lamp across the 
switch terminal and ground. If the test lamp lights, 
check for broken, loose, or corroded wire between 
switch and starter solenoid. Check all wiring on 
solenoid for tightness and condition. 

Next, check the Bendix pinion of the starter 
motor to see if it isjammed. If the pinion is Jammed 
against the flywheel, it may be freed by loosening the 
bolts which hold the starter motor to the flywheel 
housing. Reinstall the starter motor and try to start 
the engine again. 

If the battery is supplying sufficient power to the 
starter and the engine is turning but will not start, 
then perhaps there is insufficient fuel. Simple; 
however, lack of fuel is one of the main reasons that 
most engines won’t start - BELIEVE IT OR NOT! If 
an ample supply of fuel is found, then check the fuel 
line to make sure that it isn’t clogged. 

Look at the sediment bowl on the fuel line. It 
should be filled with gasoline. If it isn’t, the fuel line 



8-8 Gasoline Engine Fuel Pump 


147 















or tank vent may be clogged. Or, the valve on the 
fuel line may have been closed. Check to see if the 
valve is in the open position. If the valve is in the 
open position and the fuel line is clogged, disconnect 
the fuel line at the fuel pump and blow through the 
line. If the line is clear, then reconnect it to the fuel 
pump. Extreme precaution should be observed 
when performing any function which might allow 
fuel spillage. 

Determine whether or not fuel is reaching the 
carburetor. Remove the sediment bowl (again, be 
cautious) from the fuel pump. The screen should be 
clean so that fuel can pass through it. Reconnect the 
sediment bowl and try the engine again. If your 
battery is still holding out (along with your 
patience), make another test. 

This test is harder. Remove the spark plugs. Note 
if they are fouled with deposits and feel them to 
determine if they are wet. If there is no trace of 
gasoline in the cylinders and the plugs are dry, the 
carburetor may be out of adjustment, the float level 
may be too low, the choke may be inoperative, or 



the jets may be clogged with dirt or gum. Clean out 
the carburetor with “gunk” or “gum-out”. Put it 
back together again and see if it works. However, if 
the plugs are wet, the engine is flooded. The 
automatic choke may need adjustment or the 
manual choke has been left out too long. Dry the 
engine out by putting the choke in the “OFF” 
position and opening the throttle wide; then, with 
the ignition on, turn the engine over several times. 
Let’s hope that this is the final test and the engine 
starts. 


Before the following tests are started, be absolute¬ 
ly sure there are no fumes present. SAFETY is of 
prime importance, and the electric shock hazard, 
particularly in the normally damp environment of 
an engine compartment, is extremely dangerous. 
Some engines are now being equipped with 
capacitor discharge (C-D) ignition systems which 
raise the secondary voltage as high as 60,000 volts. 
Since each lead must be placed a certain distance 
from the engine block during these tests, it would 
not be unreasonable to expect one unaware of the 
dangers to use his hand in positioning and holding 
the leads. A simple, inexpensive wooden clothespin 
which may be hand held or clipped to a bracket is 
one solution to this problem. Since some engines are 
equipped with C-D ignitions, it should be men¬ 
tioned that they involve solid state circuits, and 
correction of a faulty C-D system is best ac¬ 
complished by replacement of the “black box”. 

The following tests are for suspected ignition 
trouble. Ignition trouble is generally suspected 
when the battery is fully charged and the starter 
motor is functioning properly but the engine will not 
start or is running irregularly. 

Remove the wire leading from the high tension 
terminal of the coil to the distributor. Hold the end 
of the wire 3/16" from the cylinder head, turn the 
engine over, and test for spark. If there is a weak 
spark or no spark, the trouble might be in the coil or 
in the distributor. If the spark from the coil is weak 
after the distributor has been checked, the coil may 
be defective. 


CONTACT ADJUSTMENT SCREW 



8-10 Distributor 


148 
















Examine the distributor cap and the breaker 
points. Check the breaker points as they may be 
stuck together or even welded together. In an 
emergency, these points can be pried apart with a 
knife or screwdriver. A weak spark or no spark may 
be caused by a bad condenser which could result in 
the points being pitted or welded together from 
arcing. Again, if the points are replaced, the 
condenser should also be replaced. While the 
distributor cap is off, examine it to see if any hairline 
cracks can be detected. If cracks are found, replace 
the cap with a new one. This is one of the real 
starting problem areas. Also check the inside of the 
distributor cap and the rotor for moisture. Dry them 
out as moisture can cause a short. 



If the distributor and coil are found to be 
satisfactory, individual spark plugs should be 
tested. Starting with one cylinder at a time, dis¬ 
connect the spark plug cable and hold the end of the 
cable about 3/16" from the cylinder head. Turn the 
ignition on. A starter jumper may be used if there is 
no emergency switch. A good strong spark should 
be evident as the engine turns over. If the spark is 
good, the plug may be cracked or fouled. Check the 
plug carefully and, if necessary, replace it. 


Outboard Marine Engine Trouble Shooting 

I here are three basic requirements for an out¬ 
board engine to function properly: 

1. A correct mixture of fuel and air; 

2. Ciood compression of this mixture; and 

3. A good ignition spark. 


If any one of these is not satisfactory, trouble will 
result. A correct mixture of fuel and air requires that 
the fuel must be clean and free from sediment and 
mixed with oil in the correct proportion. The air 
vent, shut-off valve, and mixture needle valve must 
all be opened. Be sure the motor is primed and the 
carburetor is functioning properly. Rings, bearings, 
etc., will not be discussed, but check the engine 
carefully to see if there are any leaking gaskets. 
Check the coil, distributor, spark plugs, distributor 
cap, breaker points, and wires carefully. Follow the 
steps given in the check-off list under “Inboard 
Marine Engine Trouble Shooting.” 

Complete each step in sequence and, after each 
step, try to start the engine. Don’t be impatient. 
()\ er ninety percent of the problems are simple and 
can be easily corrected. The problems have been 
separated into various categories. Determine where 
the problem is and proceed under that heading. 

I'uel or mixture trouble-check the gas tank; is the 
air vent open? Perhaps the engine is flooded or 
overprimed, or dirt or water is in the fuel supply; the 
jets may be plugged up; too much oil is in the 
gasoline; or, finally, there is a defective fuel pump or 
hose. Don't forget to try the engine after each test. 

Ignition trouble - check to see if wire to the spark 
plug is disconnected or loose; spark plug wires are 
crossed; wire to spark plug is short circuited (break 
in the insulation); spark plug electrodes are fouled 
with excess oil or moisture; plugs are improperly 
gapped; plugs have a break or crack in the jacket or 
insulator; plugs are dirty; breaker points are im¬ 
properly gapped; breaker points are fouled with oil; 
or there are broken wires or loose wires to the coil or 
condenser. 

If the engine misses, check for a plug shorting on 
the motor frame or hood, water or oil on wire 
terminals or spark plug exterior, or badly 
deteriorated insulation on the wires. Again, try the 
engine. If it doesn't start, examine the magneto 
system. Check the setting on the points; look 
carefully to see if they are pitted or fouled. If they 
are, replace the points and the condenser. Don’t try 
to save money by not replacing the condenser. If the 
points are bad, the odds are that the condenser is 
also bad. Examine all wires carefully as a broken or 
cracked wire will short the engine out. 


149 










FLYWHEEL 



FUEL PUMP 


MOTOR 

COVERSEAL 


DRIVESHAFT 

- WATER TUBES 

EXHAUST HOUSING 
SEAL 

-SHIFT ROD 

-WATER PUMP 

— EXAUST OUTLET 
-WATER INLET 


- PROPELLER SHAFT 

PROPELLER SHAFT GEARS 


EMERGENCY 
STARTER HANDLE 


CARBURETOR 


TILTLOCK - 

LOWER MOTOR MOUNT 


TRAILERING LOCK 


CRANKSHAFT 


MAGNETO 


PISTON 


8-12 Sectional View of Outboard Engine 


150 



































If the engine will not start, thoroughly examine 
the carburetor. If there is any dirt in the carburetor, 
it may result in a fuel mixture which is too lean as it 
approaches the main jet fuel supply passage. Dis¬ 
mantle the carburetor and make sure that the ports 
are clean, free from dirt, and tight fitting. After 
checking the carburetor, try starting the engine 
again. 

If the engine will not speed up, it may be 
overheated. This may be caused by an improper 
mixtuie - too rich or too lean - or not enough oil in 
the gas. Check the operator’s manual to determine 
the correct carburetor settings. Follow the manufac¬ 
turer’s instructions carefully and then attempt to 
crank the engine again. 

If the engine still overheats, one or a combination 
of the following conditions may exist: the lower unit 
is not deep enough in the water; the water circula¬ 
tion is obstructed; or the thermostat is defective. 
Examine the intake opening or the water pipe 
connections. Check the water inlet and outlet pipes 
or jackets carefully to see if they may be obstructed 
with scale or dirt. How about the propeller? Read 
the specifications in the operator’s manual. If the 
propeller is too large, it will cause the engine to 
overheat and one that is too small will cause the 
engine to overspeed. 

If the engine knocks, the spark may be advanced 
too far or it may be the result of using low-grade 
gasoline in a high compression engine. 

If the engine has excessive vibration, one or more 
cylinders may not be firing. This may be caused by 
poor ignition or mechanical failure. A bent or 
fouled propeller, loose mounting bracket, or loose 
flywheel will have the same effect. If the engine 
vibrates and omits large amounts of smoke, the 
trouble may be in the fuel system. Improper fuel 
mixture or choke operation may be the problem. 

Finally, if the engine is hard to turn over, check 
the oil, determine if the propeller is fouled, or if 
there are parts that are broken or binding. 

Spare Parts and Tools 

A lot of time has been spent reviewing trouble 
shooting. Now you must prepare for an emergency 
by carrying the proper spare parts and tools with 
which to follow up on the trouble shooting. There 
are many marine “service stations” now available 


for the boatman; however, there is always the 
chance that something will go wrong while you are 
in an isolated spot or some place where there is no 
mechanic available. Therefore, it is a good rule to 
have aboard a few spare parts and some simple 
tools. We recommend the following; 


PARTS 

Inhoards 

Spark plugs 
Coil 

Fuel filter element and gasket 
Fuel pump 

Points and condenser 

C-D circuit assembly (if applicable) 

Propeller 

Complete distributor or parts 

Generator and starter brushes 

Fuses 

Fan belts 

Spare oil 


Outboards 

Spark plugs 
Starter cord 
Shear pins 
Cotter pins 
Propeller 


TOOLS 

Screwdriver 
Adjustable wrench 
Spark plug wrench 
Hammer 
Pliers 

Coat hanger or stiff wire (for clean¬ 
ing plugged fuel and vent lines) 


Test light (12 v.) 
Feeler gage 
Hydrometer 
Clothespin 
Rags 


NOTE: Every boatman should carry operating or 
manufacturer’s manuals for his particular engine 
and the other equipment aboard. 


Fueling 

Extremely hazardous conditions exist and are 
often encountered when fueling. Safety rules should 
be rigidly observed. When taking on gasoline, all 
engines should be stopped, galley flames ex¬ 
tinguished, hatches, windows and ports secured, 
and electrical devices shut off. No smoking should 
be allowed. Diesel fuel, being less flammable, is not 
as hazardous as gasoline; however, observing the 
same safety rules is advisable and should contribute 
to development of “the safety habit.” 


151 


The gasoline nozzle should contact the filler- 
pipe deck flange at all times during fueling to 
prevent the possibility of explosion associated with 
the discharge of static electricity. (Similar 
precautions should be observed when fueling tanks 
used with outboards.) The filler-pipe deck flange 
should be connected to the boat’s ground system. 
Static electricity is generated internally throughout 
the length of the gas hose by the motion of gasoline 



8-13 Filler-Pipe Deck Flange 
with Hose Nozzle 


and by atmospheric conditions. Modern fuel pump 
equipment has been designed to prevent this dis¬ 
charge and the danger is, therefore, less than in the 
past; however, safety precautions are still con¬ 
sidered an absolute necessity. 

Space should be allowed for fuel expansion; the 
tank should not be filled to capacity. Approximate¬ 
ly five percent should be allowed, based on the 
average coefficient of fuel expansion. It is not 
necessary to mathematically compute the fuel ex¬ 
pansion; experience can be the controlling factor. 

When the fueling operation has been completed, 
any spillage should be wiped up immediately or 


washed overboard. Exhaust blowers should be 
operated for a minimum of five minutes before 
starting engines. This is sometimes difficult to 
accomplish when the dock is crowded and other 
boats are waiting to fuel. 

It is important to be thoroughly familiar with the 
dangers of handling gasoline and the necessary 
precautions to reduce the risk of fire. Become 
acquainted with the most effective means of ex¬ 
tinguishing a gasoline fire. Gasoline explosions and 
fires are the leading cause of property damage and 
one of the significant causes of loss of life and injury 
on small boats. Gasoline is used as fuel on the 
majority of boats now in operation, and the boat 
operator constantly faces the potential hazards of 
gasoline fire or explosion. 


The following Rules for Fueling are reprinted 
from a publication of the National Fire Protection 
Association and should be thoroughly learned by 
every boat operator: 

1. Fuel tanks should be properly installed and 

vented overboard. 

2. Fueling should be completed before dark 

except in emergencies. 

3. Whenever a boat is moored at service dock 

for fueling: 

a. Do not smoke, strike matches or throw 
switches; 

b. Stop all engines, motors, fans and other 
devices liable to produce sparks; 

c. Put out all light and galley fires. 

4. Before starting to fuel: 

a. See that the boat is moored securely; 

b. Close all ports, windows, doors and 
hatches; 

c. Ascertain definitely how much additional 
fuel the tanks will hold. 

5. During fueling: 

a. Keep the nozzle of the hose, or can, in 
contact with the fill opening to guard 
against possible static spark; 

b. See that no fuel spillage gets into the hull 
or bilges. 


152 













6. After fueling is completed: 

a. Close fill openings tightly; 

b. Wipe up ALL spilled fuel; 

c. Open all ports, windows, doors and 
hatches; 

d. Permit boat to ventilate for at least five 
minutes; 

e. See that there is no odor of gasoline in the 
engine room or below decks before star¬ 
ting machinery or lighting fire. 
Dangerous vapors will settle to the lowest 
level of the bilges; 

f. Be prepared to cast off mooring lines as 
soon as engine starts. 

NOTE: Portable fuel tanks should never be filled 
in the boat. Do this on the dock. 

Pre-Season Routine Maintenance — 
Outboards 

1. IGNITION SYSTEM. Go over the spark 
plugs and points, regap, clean, install, and 
replace if badly worn or pitted. Check the 
battery with a hydrometer to ensure that it 
has a full charge. Clean and inspect the 
battery cables. Check the polarity before 
connecting the cables to the terminals. Clean 
and lubricate electric starter driver 
mechanisms. 

2. LUBE OIL SYSTEM. Remove the oil level 
plug on the lower unit gear case and check for 
the proper oil level. If the oil is dirty, change 
it. Remove and clean fuel filter. Clean the 
carburetor. 

3. METAL SURFACES. Wipe off all surfaces 
with a clean cloth. Check surfaces for water 
leaks. When run for the first time, check the 
operation of the engine’s cooling system. 

Post-Season Routine Maintenance — 
Outboards 

1. FUEL SYSTEM. With engine operating in 
fresh water, put oil into the carburetor air 
intake(s) until the engine starts to smoke 
heavily. As soon as this happens, stop the 
engine. Drain the float chamber of the 
carburetor, remove and clean the fuel filter 


bowl. Drain and clean the filter elements. 
Check all gaskets carefully for wear, breaks, 
or enlarged cutouts. If in doubt, replace the 
gasket. Empty and clean the fuel tank. 

2. IGNITION SYSTEM. Remove the spark 
plugs; push the throttle all the way to the stop 
position. Turn the flywheel over a couple of 
times manually to pump out any residual 
water in the cooling system. Clean and 
lubricate the electric starter. It is 
recommended that the battery be removed 
and stored in a warm dry place. If possible, 
hook it up to a battery charger with a slow 
trickle charge. If the battery is not removed, 
leave the spark plug terminals disconnected 
for the winter; this may avoid someone 
accidently trying to start the engine. Go over 
the points; if badly worn, replace them. If 
they are not too badly pitted or worn, then 
file even, regap, and secure. 

3. METAL SURFACES. Wipe all metal 
surfaces with a lightly oiled rag. This will 
keep the surfaces from rusting during the 
winter months. Remove the propeller and 
lubricate the propeller shaft. 

4. LUBRICATION. Drain the lower unit gear 
case and refill with the lubricant specified by 
the manufacturer. Consult the owner’s 
manual for other required lubrication. 

Pre-Season Routine Maintenance — 

Inboards 

1. FUSE SYSTEMS. Prior to putting the boat 
in the water, go over the electrical system 
very carefully. Trace each circuit and develop 
a wiring diagram. Determine the fuse rating 
and store several spare fuses of each size in 
the parts kit. Don’t overlook the spare fuses; 
the fuse box can’t be “jury rigged’’ without 
taking a chance on starting a fire. Put the 
wiring diagram in a wax sandwich bag so it 
won’t be ruined by moisture. 

2. BREAKER POINTS ANDCONDENSER. 
There are special ignition wrenches that are 
used to adjust and set the points. These 
wrenches aren’t too expensive and represent 
a good investment. Before the season starts, 
check the points carefully for sharp points or 


153 


pitting. A fine file is needed to smooth off the 
points and then regap the points. Don’t use 
emery boards or sandpaper on the points; 
emory dust or sandpaper dust or grit may 
contribute to difficulties in the electrical 
circuit. If the contact points are badly worn, 
replace the points and the condenser. Using 
the manufacturer’s operating manual, set the 
proper gap. Then test the engine. 

3. SPARKPLUGS. Before the season starts, 
go over the plugs carefully, clean and regap. 
Replace if badly worn. Refer to the trouble 
shooting section and follow instructions. 

4. CARBURETOR. If the boat has been laid 
up for the winter and all fuel was not drained, 
there may be a gum residue in the carburetor. 
There are numerous commercial carburetor 
cleaners in spray cans on the market that will 
help. Check all parts very carefully. Replace 
worn or broken gaskets. 

5. HOLD-DOWN BOLTS. Go over the base 
of the engine carefully to determine if any of 
the bolts are loose. This can result in 
vibration and cause the engine to run im¬ 
properly. While checking the hold-down 
bolts, make sure the bolts on the propeller 
shaft flange coupling are tight. If the boat has 
been out of the water, this coupling was 
probably loosened to avoid strain. Check 
stuffing boxes for the propeller shaft and 
rudder post. 

6. FLAME ARRESTORS. Clean and inspect 
the flame arrestors. 

7. GENERATOR BELTS. Check the 
generator belt carefully. If it is frayed or 
worn, replace it. If loose or too tight, adjust it 
according to the operator’s manual. 

8. COOLING SYSTEM. Inspect the water 
hoses thoroughly. Remove cork plugs and 
store for use again next winter. Check all 
clamps; make sure they are tight. Check for 
leaks. If the hoses are limp or soft, replace 
them. They may be about to rupture. If water 
pump is belt-driven, give the belt the same 
check as generator belt. Check the coolant 
level in a closed system. 


9. BATTERY. Check with a hydrometer to 
make sure it has the proper specific gravity - 
that all the cells are good. Clean the terminals 
and cover with grease. Before connecting the 
battery cables, check the polarity. The cable 
lugs and battery terminals are marked (+) 
and (-) or (POS) and (NEG). Just match 
them. 

10. LUBRICATION. If oil was changed before 
storage, check the oil level only. If oil was not 
changed, do so now. Perform all other engine 
lubrication specified by the manufacturer. 
Check transmission or gear case for lubri¬ 
cant. 

Post-Season Routine Maintenance — 

Inboards 

1. LUBE OIL SYSTEM. Allow the engine to 
operate in fresh water until it is warm; then 
drain the oil and replace it with new oil. If the 
engine has a filter, change and replace it with 
a new one. Start the engine again and pour 
engine oil slowly into the carburetor air 
intake until the engine stalls. Fill all grease 
cups and lubricate all points specified by the 
manufacturer. 

2. COOLING SYSTEM. Next, drain the water 
cooling system and, if equipped with a closed 
system, replace with a half and half mixture 
of permanent automotive type anti-freeze 
and water. If raw water cooled, flush with 
fresh water and drain. Check the water pump 
carefully for worn gaskets, leaks, cable 
breaks, worn hoses, etc. Use cork plugs to 
drive into the exhaust and cooling water 
lines. 

3. IGNITION SYSTEM. Remove the spark 
plugs. While they are out for cleaning, 
regapping, or replacing, squirt a little oil into 
each cylinder and proceed to turn the engine 
over a few times. Replace the plugs but don’t 
cinch them down tightly. Don’t turn the 
engine over again until next spring. Use the 
manufacturer’s recommended lubricant on 
the distributor, starter, and generator. Ex¬ 
amine the breaker points and condenser. 
Check the points for pitting or excess wear. 
Replace if badly worn or, if not worn too 


154 


badly, file points until even. As previously 
mentioned, the points and condenser should 
be replaced concurrently. Remove the 
battery and store. 

4. FUEL SYSTEM. Drain all fuel from the 
carburetor and fuel lines. The removal of fuel 
cuts down the possibility of a fire hazard and 
the formation of gum or varnish in the fuel 
system. 

5. DRIVE SYSTEM. Drain the transmission 
and fill it with the proper lubricant. Dis¬ 
connect the propeller shaft flange. An out¬ 
drive gear box should be drained, flushed, 


and filled with the manufacturer’s 
recommended lubricant. 

6. GENERAL. Wipe all the exposed metal 
surfaces with a lightly oiled rag. This should 
inhibit rusting during the winter. If the 
engine has a hood or cover, it should remain 
on the engine. But don’t seal off the engine; it 
is mandatory that air be allowed to circulate 
around the engine. Do seal securely the 
opening at the carburetor intake with strong 
plastic film or other moisture proof material. 
On overhead valve engines, remove valve 
cover and give the entire valve assembly a 
good oiling. 


155 


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tH 







CHAPTER 9 


Marlinspike Seamanship 


Introduction 

Marlinspike seamanship is the art of handling and 
working all kinds of fiber, synthetic and wire rope. 
It includes every variety of knotting, splicing, worm¬ 
ing, parceling, serving and fancywork. Marlin¬ 
spike seamanship has been developed to such an 
extent that intricate and complicated work in rope 
can be done to the amazement of the landlubber. 
Although this is but one of a boatman’s skills, ex¬ 
cellence in handling line is usually a sign of accom¬ 
plishment in all fields of boating. 

The use of rope aboard vessels has greatly dimin¬ 
ished since the days of the clipper ships, but the 
uses that remain play an important part in the 
safety of ships and the men who sail them. Think 
of the damage and injury to a boat and the people 
on board that could result if the anchor rope were 
to part on a stormy night because the line had 
deteriorated through improper stowage. Or, think 
of the damage that could result if a boat were to be 
cast adrift during the night because the mooring 
lines were improperly secured to the cleats. In this 
chapter, the composition, use and care of rope will 
be discussed, together with an explanation of some 
of the more important knots and splices. 

Composition of Rope 

Rope is manufactured from natural fiber, syn¬ 
thetic materials or wire. Wire rope is little used 
aboard small craft, therefore this discussion will 
be confined to natural fiber and synthetic rope. 
Natural fibers used may be of many types, such as 
Manila, sisal, hemp, jute, cotton or flax. Of the 
natural fiber ropes, the best for all around use is 
Manila. It is used for mooring lines, anchor lines 


and running rigging such as sheets and halyards. 
Manila is noted for its strength and durability with 
a minimum of stretch. 

Since Manila fiber is obtained mainly from the 
Philippine Islands, it is more expensive than many 
other fibers. A more readily available fiber, sisal, is 
widely used in place of Manila, although it is in¬ 
ferior to Manila in many ways. The other fibers are 
used mostly for small lines, lead lines and flag hal¬ 
yards. In recent years, many boatmen have switched 
from the use of natural fibers to rope manufactured 
from synthetic materials. These synthetics include 
nylon, dacron, polyethylene and polypropylene. 

Size-for-size, nylon and dacron rope are much 
stronger than comparable size Manila rope. For 
this reason, you can use smaller diameter rope in 
nylon or dacron than can be used in Manila to get 
the same strength. Both types can be stored when 
wet without any loss of strength. Nylon and dacron 
are also resistant to rot, mildew, sunlight and salt 
water. The use of nylon is desired when strength 
and stretch go together, such as mooring lines and 
pendants, anchor lines, towing lines and spring 
lines. Nylon elongates about 10% at normal work¬ 
ing loads, and over 40% up to its breaking strength. 

Strength Tables 

In the table shown, the weight and strength of 
the three most popular ropes are listed according 
to their diameter. In each case, the weight is ap¬ 
proximate and the breaking strength is conservative. 
One should keep in mind that “breaking strength” 
loads should never be applied deliberately to any 
rope. Yachtsmen use a safety factor of 5 to 1 to 
provide maximum safety where lives and property 


157 


are at stake. To be on the safe side, you should use 
a rope with a rated breaking strength of FIVE 
TIMES THE WEIGHT which you intend to lift 
or pull. 

YACHTING ROPES - WEIGHT AND STRENGTH 


COMPARISON 


SIZE 

NYLON 

•DACRON” 

MANILA 

Diameter (lbs) 

lbs 

(lbs) 

Lbs 

(lbs) 

Lbs 


Weight Breaking Weight 

Breaking Weight 

Breaking 


per 100 ft Strength pi 

er 100 ft Strength p 

er 100 ft Strength 

1 / 4 " 

1.7 

1,750 

2.2 

1,300 

2.0 

600 

3/8" 

3.5 

3,200 

4.5 

2,850 

4.0 

1,350 

Vi" 

6.6 

6,600 

7.6 

4,900 

6.1 

2,650 

5/8" 

10.5 

10,200 

12.4 

7,800 

13.1 

4,400 

3^" 

15.0 

13,500 

19.3 

10,780 

16.3 

5,400 

%" 

20.5 

18,500 

23.5 

14,000 

22.0 

7,700 

1" 

27.0 

24,000 

31.3 

17,500 

26.5 

9,000 

n/8" 

34.5 

32,000 

40.4 

23,500 

35.2 

12,000 


Polyethylene and polypropylene ropes have be¬ 
come more and more popular with boatmen. They 


are characterized by exceptionally good strength 
both wet and dry, low elasticity and strong resist¬ 
ance to acids, alkalis, water, mildew and rot. Poly¬ 
propylene is used often as a water-ski tow rope 
because it floats on the water. 

How Rope is Mode and Measured 

In the manufacture of rope, the fibers are twisted 
together in one direction to form yarns, and the 
yarns are twisted together in the opposite direction 
to form strands. The strands are then twisted to¬ 
gether in the original direction to form the finished 
rope. Occasionally, cable rope will be made, which 
consists of three or four ropes twisted together in 
the opposite direction. The final direction of the 
rope is known as the lay of the rope, and is described 
as either right-laid or left-laid. 


FIBERS 



The general term for cordage is rope. It become? 
line only when it is put to use on a boat. However, 
there are a few exceptions where it is in use on 
a vessel and is still called rope. Such variances in¬ 
clude bell ropes, bolt ropes, man ropes and dip 
ropes, among others. To call a sailor s mooring lines 
“ropes” is to immediately brand yourself as a land¬ 
lubber of the worst order. 


Fiber rope is correctly measured by its circum¬ 
ference. However, most marine suppliers prefer to 
measure it by its diameter. Most pleasure boatmen 
have also followed this practice. On the other hand, 
wire rope is always measured by its diameter. Small 
diameter fiber rope is known as small stuff, and is 
designated by size according to the number of yarns 
it contains. Yarns are called threads when referring 


158 






to small stuff. For example, 6 thread small stuff 
is made up of six yarns of fiber twisted together. 
Small stuff is frequently used for seizing when 
whipping line. 

Care of Fiber Line 

Your efforts in caring for fiber line aboard your 
boat will be repaid in greater safety and longer life. 
Whenever natural fiber rope is uncoiled from a 
new coil or when a quantity of rope is taken off 
a coil, there is a procedure you can follow that 
will avoid making kinks in the rope. The coil is 
placed upright so that the end of the rope inside 
the hole in the coil is at the bottom of the hole. 
The end is then taken up through the hole and 
the desired quantity of rope is drawn off. New syn¬ 
thetic fiber rope is handled in a different manner. 
Normally, synthetic rope is received on a reel and 
should be rolled off, not uncoiled. If these pro¬ 
cedures are not followed, there will be a kink in 
the rope for each turn taken off the coil or reel. 
Kinks should always be taken out of a rope when¬ 
ever they occur. By putting a strain on the rope, a 
kink can be made to disappear but the rope will 
be badly weakened by the breaking down of the 
fibers at the point where the kink occurred. 

For easy, seaman-like handling, each length of 
rope should be taped temporarily at both ends with 
marine tape when cut from the original coil or reel 
and permanently whipped with nylon whipping 
cord at the earliest opportunity. 

Rope that is not being used should be stowed 
in a dry well-ventilated place to prevent accumula¬ 
tion of moisture and resultant rot. Lines should 
Uncoiling Fiber Rope 



be stowed on shelves or gratings off the deck and 
other material should not be stowed on top of 
them. Natural fiber lines are most susceptible to 
damage from moisture. Manila line, for instance, 
should be washed off with fresh water after salt 
water use and thoroughly dried before being stowed. 
Synthetic fiber lines such as nylon may be stowed 
when wet but this practice introduces unpleasant 
dampness below. All lines should be kept away 
from exhaust pipes and battery acids. 

A fiber line should never be overworked or over¬ 
strained. Although it may not show it, the line may 
be seriously weakened due to breakdown of the 
fibers. A good way of checking for deterioration of 
a line is to look at the inside of the line. If there 
is a noticeable accumulation of grayish powdery 
material the line should be replaced. Another indi¬ 
cation is a decrease in the diameter of a weakened 
line. Natural fiber lines will contract if they be¬ 
come wet or damp. A line secured at both ends 
will become taut during rainy weather and may 
become badly overstrained unless the line is loos¬ 
ened. This is particularly true of mooring lines and 
flag halyards, which should be slacked off if they 
become taut because of rain or dampness. It is 
good practice to wrap your mooring lines with can¬ 
vas chafing gear where they pass through the 
chocks. Anchor line, too, should be protected from 
chafing and rubbing. 

To obtain the maximum use of a line and at the 
same time maintain safety, it is a good idea to turn 
a line end-for-end periodically. Anchor ropes or 
boat falls, where one end of the line usually has all 
the strain put on it, are good examples of lines 




9-3 Temporary Whipping 


9-2 Uncoiling Rope 


159 








which should be reversed from time to time. Never 
leave the end of a line dangling loose without a 
whipping to prevent it from unlaying. Unless pro- 
teeted, it will begin to unlay of its own aeeord. 
To prevent fraying, a temporary plain whipping 
can be put on with anything, even a rope yarn or 
a pieee of frietion tape. 

Making Up Line 

All line on board your boat should be stowed 
neatly when not in use. How you stow the line 
depends on its ultimate use. There are three meth¬ 
ods of making up line—eoiling, faking and flemish¬ 
ing. Line that is to be stowed in a eompartment 
or looker should be coiled and made up, or stopped 
off with small stuff. Right-laid rope should be eoiled 
right-handed (eloekwise) and left-laid rope should 
be eoiled left-handed (eountereloekwise). 



9-4 Line Ready for Stowing 


Lines that are made up for a fast runoff sueh as 
mooring lines, heaving lines, and running rigging, 
may be faked down if there is suffieient room. Fak¬ 
ing down eonsists of laying the line in eoils either 
in a figure eight fashion or with eaeh fake lying 
elear of the next. Faking down leaves the line in 
the most advantageous position for running out 
without fouling or kinking. 

Some boatmen like to leave their line on the deek 
when not in use. To give it a neat, ornamental look, 
it ean be flemished. The line is laid on the deek 
like a spring, eaeh coil circling the one preeeding 
it. Right-laid line should be eoiled eloekwise, and 
left-laid line should be eoiled eountereloekwise. 
To tighten the coils when you are finished, lay both 
hands flat on the line at the center and twist in the 


direction the coils are laid, thus forming a tight 
mat. It should be noted here that a beautifully 
flemished line should not be left on a varnished 
surface for any length of time, especially overnight. 
The trapped moisture will spoil a good varnished 
finish. 


Knots, Bends and Hitches 

Among boatmen, the landsman’s all-inclusive 
term “knot” gives way to provide more specific 
meaning, and includes bends and hitches. Each 
knot, bend or hitch serves best in a particular cir¬ 
cumstance and is practically worthless in other 
situations. To meet your needs a good knot must 
display certain characteristics. It must hold well 
without slipping. If it is to be used for practical 
purposes and not serve as an ornament, it should 
be easy to tie. The superior knot is one that pos¬ 
sesses these advantages and is easy to untie as well. 

Most of the knots, bends and hitches that you 
will need to know in the normal operation of your 
craft are listed and illustrated below. While we 
could have added many more, they would seldom 
be used. It is far better to have a good knowledge 
of a few commonly used knots than to have a su¬ 
perficial knowledge of a great number of seldom 
used knots. Those illustrated here are functional, 
will ser\e almost e\’ery purpose, and are as easy to 
untie as they are to tie. 

How Knots and Splices 
reduce strength of rope 

%EFF 


Normal rope ■' ' 100% 

Anchor or Fisherman's bend —" 76 

Timber hitch - ■ — . 70-65 

KNOTCi 

Two half-hitches ■■ 70-65 

Bowline 60 

Clove hitch ■ '■ --■■■ — . 60 

Sheet bend or Weaver’s knot — 55 

Square or Reef knot . - 45 


SPLICES 


Eye splice (over thimble) ■ — 95-90 

Long splice 87 

Short splice — . - . ■ ■ 85 


9-5 Strength of Different Knots 


Square Knot (Reef Knot) 

The square knot, also called the reef knot, is 
used to join lines of equal diameter together. It 


160 















should never be used to join unequal lines as it 
will slip. The square knot is employed for a multi¬ 
tude of purposes, and is so versatile on boats that 
it is sometimes referred to as the sailor s knot. We 
should, however, include the caution that the square 


knot should not be used to tie lines which will be 
subjected to heavy loads. The square knot has a 
serious disadvantage in that it will “tumble" when 
placed under heavy strain and, in this condition, is 
almost impossible to untie. 




9-6 Square Knot 


9-7 

Sheet Bend (Beckef Bend) 

The sheet bend, also known as the becket bend, 
is used for tying two lines together. This bend will 
securely hold two lines together even if the lines 
are of unequal sizes. It is comparatively easy to 
untie even after having been subjected to heavy 
strain for long periods of time. When used on a 
tow line, the free ends should be stopped down 
with twine for maxirtium security. The lighter line 
should be “bent" around the heavier line. An extra 


Becket 

turn can be taken around the heavier line for extra 
security. When this is done, the bend is known as 
a double sheet bend, or double becket bend. The 
double sheet bend is also suitable for attaching a 
line to an eye. 

Clove Hitch 

The clove hitch is used to tie a line temporarily 
to a pile or bollard. It is easy to tie and is reason¬ 
ably secure for short periods of time. Many boat- 




161 






9-8 Bowline 


men make doubly sure by adding a half hitch to 
the standing part. When wet, the clove hitch may 
be difficult to untie. 

Anchor Bend (Fisherman's Bend) 

The anchor bend, also called the fisherman’s 
bend, is simple to tie and is extremely strong. It 
will not slip or jamb and is easily untied, even if 
it has been subjected to a great strain. It is used to 
tie a line to an anchor ring, a buoy or a spar. To 
prevent the bend from working loose, a second half¬ 
hitch is sometimes taken around the standing part, 
or the end is seized back to the line with small stuff. 

Bowline 

The bowline is known as the king of knots be¬ 
cause it is easy to tie, will not slip nor jam, and 


is as easy to untie as it is to tie. Basically, the bow¬ 
line forms a secure loop at the end of a line. This 
loop can be used in a wide variety of ways. The 
loop can be placed over a post or bollard as a moor- 

ANCHOR BEND AND ANCHOR BOWLINE 



ANCHOR BOWLINE 


162 


9-9 Anchor Bend and 
Anchor Bowline 






ing line. It can be used to tie to an anchor ring. 
Heavy lines are often tied together by using a bow¬ 
line on the end of each line, with the loops pass¬ 
ing through each other. By passing the standing 


part of the line through the loop, a free running 
noose can be made. A bowline, properly tied, will 
not slip, nor does it pinch or kink the line as much 
as many other knots. 



9-10 Clove Hitch 


Figure Eight 

The figure eight is principally used as a stopper 
knot. It is placed at the end of a line to keep it 
from running through a block or other opening. 
The figure eight can also be used temporarily in 
place of whipping to keep a line from unraveling. 

Two Half-hitches 

Two half-hitches are very easy to tie and are used 
most often to secure a line to a ring, spar, post or 
bollard. This hitch is not as popular as the clove 
hitch although it displays approximately the same 
characteristics. It is more easily untied than the 





9-11 Figure Eight Knot 


163 









clove hitch. Note that this knot consists of a turn 
around the fixed object and a clove hitch over the 
standing part of the line. Two half-hitches are bet¬ 
ter than a clove hitch when permanence is desired. 



9-12 Two Half Hitches 


Belaying a Cleat 

Securing a line to a cleat is one of the most 
common procedures in docking a boat and yet it is 
frequently done improperly. The correct method is 
to lead the line in one round turn around the base of 
the cleat and then to form at least one figure eight 
around the horns of the cleat. Secure the line with a 
half-hitch over one horn of the cleat. One caution - 
be sure to have the line figure-eighting over the cleat 
when the half-hitch is made. Do not make the error 
of having the last loop come along the side of the 
cleat instead of crossing over. This fastening may 
also be referred to as a “half-hitch on a cleat” or as a 
“cleat-hitch”. 


Splices 

Splices are used for permanently joining or mar¬ 
rying two lines together, making a loop in the end 
of a line, or finishing off the end of a line. 


The Back Splice 

When a line has been cut, a back splice can be 
woven into the end to prevent unraveling. The back 
splice is started with a crown knot, and finished 
off by tucking the left-over strands over and under 
the strands in the main part of the line. Be sure 
to burn the ends of each strand of synthetic rope 
before attempting any splicing to prevent unravel¬ 
ing of the ends. It is also a good idea to whip the 
ends of strands of manila or other natural fiber 
ropes for the same reason. 

The Short Splice 

Lines are short-spliced together when a slight 
enlargement of the diameter of the line is not a 
matter of importance. The only trick in short splic¬ 
ing is in seizing the ends together so that each 
strand in one end lies along the conesponding 
strand in the other end. After unlaying the strands, 
you simply butt the two ends against each other 
until you see that they are interlaced correctly. 
Once your seizing is on, tuck over and under the 
same way you finish off an eyesplice. Three tucks 
on either side of the seizing are enough. 



9-14 Crown Knot 





164 












9-15 Eye Splice 


The Eye Splice 

When a permanent loop in the end of a line is 
desired, such as a mooring line, an eyesplice is used. 
To make an eyesplice, unlay the strands of the line 
and splice them into the standing part of the line 
by tucking the unlaid strands from the end of the 
line into the standing part. An original round of 
tucks plus two more complete rounds is enough 
for any ordinary eye splice in natural fiber line such 
as Manila. An extra tuck should be made when 
splicing nylon line because of its smoothness and 
stretch. 


Illustration 9-16 shows the proper steps in making 
an eye splice. 




9-16 Making an Eye Splice 


The Lead Line 

A lead line is a line which has been marked in 
such a manner that it can be used to measure the 
depth of the water. The line is weighted with a 
“lead” which should weigh at least five pounds 
for depths of 100 feet. Ideally, the line should be 
braided cotton, 150 to 200 feet long. Seamen have 
a system of marking the line with strips of leather 
or cloth, or by knots. These markings are as follows: 


2 fathoms 

2 strips of leather 

3 fathoms 

.3 strips of leather 

5 fathoms 

strip of white cottonrag 

7 fathoms 

strip of red woolen rag 

10 fathoms 

strip of leather with a hole in it 

13 fathoms 

same as 3 fathoms 

15 fathoms . 

same as 5 fathoms 

17 fathoms 

same as 7 fathoms 

20 fathoms 

.2 knots 

25 fathoms 

1 knot 

30 fathoms 

3 knots 

35 fathoms 

1 knot 

40 fathoms 

4 knots 


(and so on) 


These markings are not in widespread use among 
recreational boatmen. Any markings used should 
be easily remembered and able to be read quickly. 
It is for this reason that many marine dealers fea¬ 
ture lead lines with plastic strips attached, on whieh 
the depth is marked in easy-to-read figures. These 
lead lines require no memorizing of marks and are 
marked in single fathoms up to ten fathoms. 

In practice, the lead is cast forward with an 
underhand swing while the boat is proceeding under 
very slow headway. The speed should be slow 
enough that the lead will reach the bottom by the 
time the line stands vertically. The vertical distance 
from the waterline to the hand of the person cast¬ 
ing the lead should be known. The mark which is 


165 


















held in the hand is read and the distance to the 
water is deducted from this figure. 



9-17 Lead Line 

The Armed Lead 


Some leads have a hollowed-out portion on the 
bottom of the lead which can be “armed” with a 
quantity of tallow or bedding compound. In a 
pinch, a wad of chewing gum can be used although 
you may have difficulty in getting it to stick to the 
lead. Using this procedure, a sample of the bottom 
can be brought up. In most cases the character of 
the bottom is shown on your chart. By having a 
sample of the bottom, you may be able to further 
identify your position, especially in conditions of 
reduced visibility when no landmarks are in sight. 

The Heaving Line 

On small craft, a heaving line will seldom be 
used. Nevertheless, the well found boat will always 
have a heaving line aboard. A heaving line is made 
up of a small line (50 to 60 ft long) with a weight 
at one end. This weight can be a “monkey's fist” 
(an intricate woven knot which surrounds a 
weight), a soft rubber ball which has been drilled 
and the end of the line pulled through it, or a 
small chamois or canvas sand bag. The purpose 
of the weight is to enable the end of the heaving 


line to be heaved out to its full length. A heaving 
line is not a weapon, although, if not carefully used, 
it can sometimes cause as much damage as a 
weapon. It is for this reason that the weight should 
not be any heavier than necessary to carry the line 
out to its full length. The heaving line is made up 
in loose coils, arranged for free running. The line 
is carried in both hands with approximately half 
of the line in each hand. It is thrown with a strong 
underhand swing. 

In practice the heaving line is used as a messen¬ 
ger to send a heavier line ashore or to another boat. 
It is seldom necessary to use a heaving line when 
approaching a pier or float. There may be instances 
when circumstances will not permit a boat to ap¬ 
proach a pier close enough to heave a mooring line 
ashore. In these cases the necessary extra distance 
can generally be spanned by using a heaving line. 
On small craft the heaving line is most often used 
when passing a line from one boat to another when 
sea conditions make a close approach dangerous. 
The heaving line is heaved over the deck of the 
other craft. The weighted end of the heaving line 
should splash into the water on the far side of the 
other boat. All too many heaving lines have been 
thrown through the windshield or through the side 
window of other craft. This is not only dangerous 
but it seldom, if ever, favorably impresses the owner 
of the other boat. Do not attempt to cast a heaving 
line directly at another person. It could strike him 
and injure him although, if thrown directly at an¬ 
other person, it will generally fall short. To repeat, 
heave the line completely over the other boat. In 
this way it will not matter if it is thrown too far, 
and it will be relatively simple for the operator of 
the other boat to grasp. 

Dipping the Eye 

Sometimes two lines, with eye splices, are to be 
placed on one bollard. If the two eyes are simply 
dropped over the bollard, it may not be possible to 
remove the first line until the second one has been 
taken off. To avoid this problem, bring the end of 
the eye of the second line up through the eye of the 
first line and then drop it over the bollard. By doing 
this either line may be removed first with no 
problem developing. 


166 



Tow Lines 

It is a tradition among seamen that a vessel in 
distress is not left to fend for herself. If you en¬ 
counter a vessel in trouble afloat, you are morally 
bound to render all possible assistance without plac¬ 
ing your boat or your crew in danger by doing so. 
This assistance may be limited to standing by until 
other help arrives but, in most cases, it involves 
towing the other boat to a safe mooring or anchor¬ 
age. 

The business of towing another boat is relatively 
simple if a few precautions are observed. The often- 
heard statement that you should insist on using the 
other fellow’s towline is absurd. “Sea lawyers” who 
insist on using a towline of unknown capabilities 
are generally asking for trouble. You know (or 
should know) the condition of your lines, and you 
are usually well advised to use equipment you can 
trust. Remember that when you take another boat 
in tow you assume full responsibility for this boat 
and all hands aboard. If, as the result of your “as¬ 
sistance,” the other boat is left in worse condition 
than it was before you touched it, you could be 
held legally liable. For this reason, it is simply not 
wise to ever tie a line to a sinking boat. Take the 
persons off but don’t tie a line to it. If this boat 
sinks on the end of your towline, you might not 
be held responsible, but then again, you might be. 

Towing equipment consists of a towline, a bridle, 
a short length of smaller line, and a heaving line. 


A bridle is a short line (usually three times the 
width of your transom) with an eye splice on both 
ends. If possible, the bridle should be attached to 
the boat forward of the rudder post. In practice, 
the eyes of the bridle are generally placed over the 
stern cleats. The towline is made fast to the bridle. 
This centers the tow and makes it much easier to 
control. 

The diameter of line used for the bridle will de¬ 
pend on what your cleats can accommodate. Need¬ 
less to say, the cleats should be sturdy enough to 
handle a considerable strain without breaking or 
pulling out from the deck. If you doubt the strength 
of your cleats, don’t use them for towing. Attach 
the line to something you can trust. 

The size of the towline will depend on a variety 
of conditions. Your choice is limited to what you 
have aboard. If you doubt the ability of a line to 
handle a tow, don’t use it. Sea conditions and the 
weight of the distressed vessel are most important. 



9-19 A Towing Bridle 


167 













On many small boats, the cleats and chocks are 
small in size and are often attached with screws 
without a doubler under the deck. In these circum¬ 
stances, it is possible to pull out the cleats, chocks 
or part of the deck. If the stem ring is bolted 
through (not merely installed with screws), it can 
often be used for towing, although in some cases 
the ring will not stand the strain of a long tow. 
If you are suspicious about the condition of the 
cleats or stem ring on the distressed vessel, it might 
be well to go aboard (with their permission) and 
inspect these items personally. In extreme cases, it 
may be necessary to pass a sling completely around 
the other boat, with the towline attached to the 
sling. 

A towline should be in excellent condition and 
large enough for the task. If you have a choice, 
always use the heavier line for additional safety. 
If the towline is too large for the cleat of the towed 
vessel, double up a smaller line and attach it to 
the end of the towline. 

A nylon towlinc is preferred over Manila because 
of its higher strength and shock-absorbing elasticity. 
However, a word of caution concerning towlines 
should be inserted at this point. All lines have a 
rated breaking strength and will part suddenly when 
over-strained. If a towline parts under strain it can 
snap back in either direction like a whip. Because 
of the elasticity of nylon line, this potential danger 
is greater with a nylon towline than with Manila. 
The fowline should never be over-strained delib¬ 
erately, and it is good practice to keep persons clear 
of the stern when you have another boat in tow. 
This is also true of the towed boat, and persons 
should be advised to keep clear of the towline on 
the bow. 

Towing 

While towing, keep the boats far enough apart 
to allow the towline to assume a long smooth curve 
which can act as a spring. Adjust the length of the 
towline so that both boats are climbing and de¬ 
scending waves together. Unless this is done, the 
line will be alternately slack and taut, which se¬ 
verely strains the line. If the towed boat is descend¬ 
ing while the towing boat is climbing a wave, the 
tow-line will come up with a dangerous snap when 


the relative positions of the boats on the waves are 
reversed. This condition is almost always present 
when towing in a following sea. In some following 
seas, the only way a boat can be towed is to trail 
a drogue behind the towed vessel which will offer 
sufficient drag to keep the tow from surfing down 
the waves of the following sea. 

Most boatmen make the mistake of towing too 
fast. Towing should be done at a speed which will 
not strain the towing gear or fastenings and still 
permit complete control. In many cases, the rud¬ 
der of the towed boat should be placed amidships 
and tied down in this position since most attempts 
to steer a tow do more harm than good. If the 
towed boat begins to yaw (swinging from one side 
to another on the towline) it could easily capsize. 
Yawing must be stopped as soon as it develops. 
This can usually be controlled by either trimming 
the towed boat well aft by moving as much weight 
as possible toward the stern or trailing a good sized 
drogue behind the towed boat. In some cases, it 
will be necessary to trim the towed boat aft and rig 
a drogue in order to control the tendency of the 
tow to yaw. 

Once you get the tow into sheltered waters of a 
marina or harbor, you should slow down and shor¬ 
ten up the towline. Most powerboat operators in 
trouble claim “engine failure” as the cause of their 
problem. It's amazing how often a few gallons of 
fuel will “cure” their troubles. Your responsibility 
for this tow ends when you have her safely tied to 
a pier or float, so your best bet is to head for the 
nearest fuel float. Come up to the float slowly and 
have one of your crew simply step off with the tow- 
line in hand. Standing on the float, he can pull the 
towed boat in hand-over-hand. Unless you have 
experience in landing with a boat in tow, do not 
try to be too fancy in making your landing. The 
method described may not impress onlookers but 
it will do the job with the least amount of fuss. 
Additionally, it is guaranteed to work—every time! 


168 


CHAPTER 10 


Sailing 


Large or small, old or new, simple or complicated 

— all sailboats respond in the same basic ways to the 
forces of wind and water. By learning the principles 
of sailing, you can take a giant step toward handling 
any sailboat with skill and safety. The information 
presented here is, however, only an introduction to 
the sport of sailing: Having mastered it, you’ll still 
be a beginning sailor. 

As a novice skipper, you’ll be well advised to 
continue your sailing education, both on the water 
and in the classroom. By all means go sailing — it’s 
the best way to improve your skills, the best way to 
put principles and theory into practical use. But 
bear in mind that, at this stage, you should be extra 
careful. Following these simple rules will help you 
get the most fun from sailing: 

1. Always check the weather before setting out: 
Get a marine weather forecast that’s up to date. If 
bad or even unsettled weather is predicted, don’t go- 

— there’ll be another day. 

2. Never sail alone: Like skindiving solo, sailing 
single-handed exposes you to extra hazards and 
difficulties. If possible, crew for a more experienced 
sailor; don’t be afraid to ask him or her what’s going 
on, if you don’t understand. If you sail with another 
beginner, take turns steering and handling the sails. 

3. Select a proper boat: You can learn to sail in 
virtually any kind of craft, but some boats are better 
for learning than others. The ideal boat for most 
beginners is a single-masted vessel of 16-20 feet in 
length (assuming a crew of two or three). It should 
have a place to stow safety and other gear (often 
under the forward deck), and it should be equipped 
with built-in flotation, so that in case of capsize or 
swamping it’ll stay afloat and support the crew as 
well. 



10-1 Offshore Cruiser-racer 



10-2 Daysailer 


169 







4. Make sure your boat is properly equipped. 
The average daysailer (boat without a cabin) needs 
little gear, and here are the essentials: Coast Guard- 
approved personal flotation device for each person 
aboard (a buoyant vest will do, but if you’re serious 
about your sailing, consider one of the specially- 
designed vests for sailors, which allow more 
freedom of movement than the standard model, 
while providing just as much buoyancy); paddles or 
oars, in case the wind doesn’t blow; bucket and/or 
pump for bailing (a sponge for getting up the last 
drops is a good extra); waterproof packet of distress 
signals — orange smoke, night flares, distress flag; 
anchor, and line. Finally, make sure you do your 
practice sailing out of the main channels, away from 
waterskiers and fishermen. Others will appreciate 
your courtesy, and you’ll have a better time. 

Parts of the Boat 

The most important element in any boat is the 
hull, the container that supports the crew and their 
gear. While most small sailboat hulls don’t have the 
added necessity of holding up a large engine and fuel 
system, they do need to provide relative stability 
against the heeling (tipping) forces imposed by the 
wind on mast and sails. There are three main ways of 
achieving hull stability: 



10-3 Vee-bottom Hull 


10-4 Ballast Keel Hull 


1. Hull shape: a wide, flat- or vee-bottomed hull 
has what’s called initial stability — its tendency is to 
stay on an even keel, because of its shape. To keep it 
from slipping sideways (called “making leeway”) a 
fin-shaped keel is attached to the bottom. If the keel 
is retractable, it’s called a centerboard or dagger- 
board. 


2. Ballast counterweight: to balance the weight 
aloft, and the wind pressure on the sails, the keel 
may have cast into it a heavy metal weight, usually 
lead or iron. The lower the weight, the more 
effective the ballast keel. Heavily ballasted boats are 
often rounded in cross-section, as this is an easier 
shape to drive through the water. 

3. Live ballast: In smaller boats, the crew shifts 
from side to side to supplement or replace ballast 
and/or hull shape support. Most boats sail best 
when heeled only slightly, and the crew hikes out to 
a greater or lesser degree to keep the boat on her 
feet. When not hiking out, the crew sits in the 
cockpit, a recess in the deck with a raised edge (the 
coaming) that keeps out spray. 




10-6 Centerboard 


A small sailboat’s cockpit isn’t very roomy, and 
often the crew must share it with the centerboard or 
daggerboard trunk — the watertight casing in which 
the board rests when raised. A centerboard is 
pivoted, as in the illustration, at its forward end, 
while the simpler daggerboard is raised up and 
down in its slot. Obviously, a boat with either type 
of board can operate in much shallower water than 
can a boat with a fixed keel — but with the board all 
the way up, a boat under sail tends to slide 
downwind almost out of control. 




170 





























Most small sailboats are steered by a simple tiller 
—rudder combination. The rudder is hinged to the 
boat’s transom (in smaller craft), and the tiller is just 
a lever to increase the power of the helmsman’s 
muscles. In some boats, where the helmsman hikes 
out, there’s a tiller extender to add inches to his 
reach. 

S 




10-7 Tiller Action and Boat Heading 

The tiller works as shown in the illustrations. All 
you need to remember is that pushing the tiller to the 
boat’s port side makes the bow swing to starboard, 
and vice versa: Move the tiller away from the 



10-8 Rudder Drag Changes Heading 


direction in which you want the boat to go. After an 
hour or two, it becomes second nature. 


The Sails 

A vessel can operate efficiently with anywhere 
from one to a couple of dozen sails. Most beginners’ 
boats, however, have either one or two sails, the 
mainsail and the jib. Each, as you can see, is 
triangular in shape, and the main parts of each have 
the same names. Many sailors find it helpful to 
stencil head and clew on the appropriate corner of 
their sails. 



10-9 Corners of Main and Jib 


While the mainsail is normally larger than the jib, 
this isn’t the case on all boats. The mainsail’s leach is 
extended by strips of wood or plastic — the battens 
— while the jib is normally without battens, 
especially if it overlaps the mast. 

Both sails are raised by lines called haly ards that 
run through pulleys and back down to cleats on 
deck. The mainsail, once raised, is controlled by 
another line called the mainsheet, usually made fast 
near the sail’s clew. The jib has two sheets, one on 
each side of the mast, leading aft to cleats alongside 
the cockpit. 

Most sails today are made of Dacron, an artificial 
fiber that is very strong and resists rot. Dacron sails 
require minimum maintenance, but it’s a good idea 
to wash them at least once a year (in mild detergent 
and warm water) and have your sailmaker check 
them over for wear and tear once a season. 


171 











































The Spars and Rigging 

Obviously, cloth sails need a rigid framework to 
hold them up and extend them to the wind. Light 
wood or metal spars form this frame — the vertical 
mast and, hinged to it by a universal joint, the 
horizontal boom combine to extend two sides of the 
mainsail. While the sail itself may be fastened just at 
head, tack and clew, its foot and luff are usually set 
into grooves in the boom and mast respectively. 


All these wires — the stays and shrouds — are 
known collectively as standing rigging. Their pur¬ 
pose is to keep the mast standing straight against the 
many stresses imposed upon it. In complex boats, 
there may be many pieces of standing rigging, and in 
the very simplest sailing surfboards, there is no 
standing rigging at all — the mast is set into a 
reinforced hole in the deck, and is strong enough to 
keep upright without stays or shrouds. 



10-10 Sheets and Halyards 


The jib is not attached to any spar, but is snapped 
with special fittings to the forestay, a taut wire 
running upward from the bow to keep the mast from 
falling or bending backward. 

Other stainless steel wires support the mast in 
other directions — a backstay (not always found 
in smaller boats) counteracts the pull of the forestay. 
Shrouds run from the masthead to the sides of the 
boat, where they are made fast to chainplates, which 
distribute the load to the sides of the boat. 



10-11 Nomenclature of a Sloop 
Rigged Daysailer 


Here, then, is the complete boat, ready to sail. 
Most of today’s popular daysailers have a fairly 
close resemblance to this open-cockpit sloop (a boat 
with one mast and two basic sails). Some boats are 
more complex in their rig, and some are markedly 
simpler. On the next page are a few other types of 
boats you may see on American waters. 


172 








































10-12 Sailboard 


Essentially a surfboard with a mast and sail, this is 
about as simple a boat as one can find. Its type of sail 
is called lateen, and was invented by Arab sailors in 
the Mediterranean. While very fast and much fun to 
sail, boardboats like this one require very quick 
reactions and frequently capsize. They can be easily 
righted, however, often in a matter of seconds. 


The native American catboat originated as a 
working fishing boat well over a hundred years ago. 
Its single sail is called a gaff rig, because of the extra 
spar — the gaff — which extends the upper edge of 
the sail. It is an easy boat to sail in gentle winds, but 
can be demanding in breezes over 10 or 15 miles per 
hour. 


When individual sails get too big to handle, the 
obvious thing to do is divide them up into more 
sails, as on this ketch, a popular type of cruising 
boat. Other two-masted boats include the jaw/and 
schooner. 10-14 Ketch 



173 




10-15 Catamaran 


Some sailors prefer two-hulled catamarans, like 
this one. The rig is a variety of catboat, but the twin 
hulls are very narrow and easy to drive through the 
water, allowing high potential speeds. The crew sits 
in a canvas or webbing trampoline between the 
hulls, steering with a crossbar linked to double 
rudders. 


Wind 

Whatever the boat’s shape or rig, it uses the same 
fuel — wind. Defined generally as air in motion, 
wind for the sailor is two different things, true wind 
and apparent wind. 

True, or geographic, wind is what you feel when 
standing in one fixed place ashore. True wind 
direction is registered ashore on flags, on weather- 
vanes, or on sophisticated instruments. 

Apparent wind, which is what a rider feels in a 
moving vehicle, is a combination of true wind force 
and direction, and the force and direction of the 
wind caused by the vehicle’s motion. Let’s break 
that definition down a bit more, by use of an 
example or two. 


On a windless day, you set out from shore in a 
motorboat moving at 10 miles per hour. If you put 
your head up over the windshield, you’ll feel a 10- 
mile-per-hour wind blowing directly in your face — 
but if you throttle back, the wind drops. This is a 
false wind, caused by the boat moving through the 
air — not air moving past an unmoving boat. 

Later in the day, a north wind of 5 miles per hour 
springs up, and you head your motorboat, at 10 
MPH, directly into it. Put your head over the 
windshield and you’ll feel a wind of 15 MPH: the 
true wind of 5, plus false wind of 10. Now turn and 
run in the opposite direction: The apparent wind 
drops off to 5 MPH: false wind of 10, minus true 
wind of 5. 

So far so good, but with sailboats it’s often more 
complicated. If you are sailing with the true wind 



10-16 True and Apparent Wind 


coming at right angles to your boat, and a false wind 
equal to your boat’s speed coming over the bow, the 
apparent wind will be coming from somewhere 
between the two, stronger than either true or false 
wind. 

There are ways of figuring out the exact strength 
and direction of apparent wind, but it’s really not 
necessary. Just remember that what you feel in a 
moving boat is not the wind people are feeling 


174 











10-17 Types of Masthead Wind Vanes 


ashore. To find apparent wind direction, most 
sailors use a masthead wind vane, like the ones 
shown, or a strip of light cloth about halfway up the 
shrouds. Be sure that your wind vane is not 
blanketed by the sails or by another boat. 


Beating 

Ancient sailing vessels nearly always sailed more 
or less directly before the wind, yet modern sailboats 
can head to within 45° of the direction from v/hich 
the true wind is blowing. Because of the effect of 
apparent wind, it often feels as if your boat is sailing 
almost directly into the wind. 

How is this possible? Basically, what happens is 
that the sail which acted like a wall when the boat 
was running now behaves like an airplane’s wing. 
Looked at from above, a sail’s shape is not unlike a 
side view of an airplane wing. As many people 
know, an airplane is held up — lifted — not by the 
air underneath its wings, but by the air passing over 
the curved upper surface. 


RUNNING 

WIND FROM DEAD ASTERN 



10-18 Running: 

Wind From Dead Astern 


Running 

It’s easy to understand how a boat can sail with 
the wind astern, as in the diagram. With the boom 
fully extended to one side or the other, the sail 
simply obstructs the wind; the boat is pushed 
forward. Because of wind eddies off the mainsail, 
the jib often flutters helplessly when a boat is 
running. If the jib will stand out on the opposite side 
to the main (sailing wing-and-wing, it’s called), you 
may be able to add a bit of speed. This kind of sailing 
is called running. 


The air blowing over the convex wing or sail 
creates a partial vacuum (for reasons too complex to 
go into here), and the wing or sail is lifted up and 
forward — carrying the plane or boat along. The 
lifting force operates most strongly in the forward 
third of the sail’s area, and the lift itself is at right 
angles to the sail at any given point. Therefore, only 
part of the lifting impetus presses the boat forward, 
while much of the force urges the boat sideways. 
Because the underwater shape of a sailboat hull is 
designed to take maximum advantage of forward 
pressure, while at the same time resisting sideways 
pressures, the boat moves forward — into the wind. 
This kind of sailing is called beating, or sailing close- 
hauled (because the boom is hauled as close in to the 
boat’s centerline as possible). 


175 












Anytime a boat is not beating or running, it is said 
to be reaching. There are three kinds of reaches — a 
close reach, when the apparent wind is coming from 
forward of amidships; a beam reach, when the 
apparent wind is at right angles to the boat; and a 
broad reach, when the wind is coming from aft of 


amidships. In most reaching, the forces operating 
on the sail are a combination of push and lift, and on 
a beam reach, the boat often gets the most possible 
help from each force — which is why beam reaching 
is often the fastest kind of sailing. 


10-20 Sail and Boat Attitudes Relative to Wind 
When Close Hauled and Reaching 

4 ^ 



176 







WIND AHEAD 


EYE OF WIND 


I 


WIND AHEAD 



t 


FROM THE QUARTER WIND AFT FROM THE QUARTER 

10-21 Possible Headings Relative to Wind Direction 


BEAM WIND 


4^^ beam wind 


ON THE 


,ON THE WIND 


FORWARD OF THE BEAM 


FORWARD OF THE BEAM 


The Points of Sailing 

Here is a diagram showing all the possible head¬ 
ings for a modern sailboat reacting to winds from 
different direction. Note the shaded area, a 90° arc 
which cannot be sailed. This unusable portion of the 
available headings extends 45° on either side of the 
eye of the wind — the direction from which the wind 
is blowing. 

These are true wind directions, of course: Close- 
hauled, a skipper will find his wind vane seems to 
indicate that he is sailing to within 10° or 15° of the 
wind’s eye, but that’s only the effect of apparent 
wind aboard the boat. 

Winds blowing from the right side of the diagram 
are coming over the boat’s starboard side. When the 
wind blows from starboard, a boat is said to be 


sailing on the starboard tack. When the wind blows 
over a boat’s port side - whether forward of or abaft 
the beam - the boat is on port tack. 

Changing Direction 

Sooner or later it happens that a boat will need to 
change from one tack to the other. There are two 
ways of doing this, depending on whether the boat is 
sailing close hauled or is running. 

Tacking, or Coming About 

This is the safest and most usual way of changing 
direction, always used when a boat’s course is 
toward the wind’s eye. Tacking successfully is a 
matter of practice and timing, and the whole 
maneuver can be divided into five steps. 


177 









10 -22 Tacking: “Ready About!" 

1. “Ready about!” The skipper (usually the 
crewmember who is steering) has decided it’s time to 
change course. “Ready about!” is his way of alerting 
the rest of the crew to his intentions. Normally, the 
crew is sitting on the windward (toward the wind) 
side of the boat for balance; everyone makes ready 
to shift sides. One crewmember unties the jib sheet 
and holds it, ready to release. 

2. “Hard alee!” calls the skipper, pushing the 
tiller to leeward — away from the wind. The crew 
shift their weight to the middle of the boat, 
crouching to avoid the boom. 

3. Through the wind: The bow is now passing 
through the wind’s eye, as the boat pivots. The jib 
sheet is released, but the other jib sheet is not yet 
hauled. As the boat’s bow passes through the wind, 
the crew complete their weight shift. 


10-23 Tacking: "Hard Alee!" 


10-24 Tacking: Through the Wind 




178 



10-25 Tacking: Boom Across 


4. Boom across: The mainsail boom swings to 
the opposite side of the boat, as the mainsail fills 
with wind from the other side. Crew takes in the 
leeward jib sheet until the sail stops fluttering. The 
mainsheet, not having been released, has allowed 
the boom to swing just far enough over to leeward so 
the mainsail fills properly. 

5. Settling down on the new tack, the crew coils 
down the jib sheet as the boat gains speed. 

It may happen that a boat is moving so slowly that 
it will stall out at step 3. and refuse to go through the 
eye of the wind. If this happens, let the jib sheets run 
free and wait till the boat falls back on the old tack. 
Then build up speed by sailing on a close reach 
before tacking again. 



10-26 Tacking: On the New Tack 


Tacking along a course 

It often happens that a sailboat must travel some 
distance to windward, in a direction which makes a 
direct heading to the destination impossible. In a 
situation like this, the sailboat skipper zig-zags in a 
series of tacks toward his mark, as shown in the 
illustration. 



If the mark is directly upwind, the tacks will be of 
equal distance, except perhaps for the last one or 
two: Since it takes time to come about, a series of a 
few long tacks is faster than many short ones — yet 
it’s sometimes much easier to keep the mark in sight 
with shorter tacks. 


179 






When the mark isn’t directly upwind, yet cannot 
be reached on a single heading, the course will not be 
composed of equal port and starboard tacks: One or 
the other tack, as illustrated, will be much more 
advantageous. 

In calculating when to tack, the skipper should 
take into account the leeway (or sideways slippage) 
of his boat. All boats make leeway when sailing 
close hauled, and the amount of leeway depends 
largely on a boat’s design. Generally speaking, it’s a 
mistake to try to sail too close to the wind: This 
causes the boat to stall for lack of lift, and to lose 
speed gradually. Keep the sails full and keep the 
boat moving at all times, and if a wave slows you up, 
head away from the wind to a close reach till you 
regain speed. 

Jibing 

Timing is also the key to changing tacks when 
heading downwind, which is called jibing. Note, 
however, the one important difference between the 
two maneuvers: Whereas the attached edge of the 
sail passes through the wind’s eye when tacking, the 


free edge does the swinging when you jibe: The effect 
can be similar to what happens when the wind gets 
behind an open door and slams it closed. 

1. “Stand by to jibe!” calls the skipper. Uncleat 
the mainsheet and begin to take it in quickly, coiling 
it so that it will be ready to run free when needed. 
Don’t worry about the jib. Get ready to shift crew 
weight. 

2. “Jibe-oh!” and the skipper puts the tiller over 
— not too hard — toward the wind (or away from 
the boom: it’s the same thing). Crew stands by to let 
the mainsheet run. 

3. Boom across — but it will swing fast, picking 
up speed as it comes. The crewman’s role is vital: Do 
not snub the mainsheet up short, so the boom 
fetches up with a jerk. Rather, let the sheet out in a 
controlled run (wearing inexpensive painter’s gloves 
is a good idea the first few times). When the boom is 
out at right angles to the boat, snub its sheet. 

4. Off on the new tack. Now you can try to get 
the jib to set wing-and-wing on the opposite side, if 
you want. 





By to Jibe!” 


180 














Accidental jibe 

We saw earlier that a jibe is by its nature a less 
controlled maneuver than coming about. In high 
winds, or when the skipper is careless, a jibe may be 
quite dangerous: 



10-32 Possible Result of an 
Uncontrolled Jibe 


1. If the mainsheet is snubbed too abruptly, the 
boat may be jerked over and swamp or capsize. 

2. If the sheet is not snubbed, the swinging boom 
may hit the leeward shroud, damaging the boom or 
shroud, or even dismasting the boat. 

3. If the sheet is not controlled as the boom 
swings, the boom may arc upward and snag the 
backstay, breaking it or capsizing the boat. 

Tacking downwind 

When winds are gusty, the prudent skipper whose 
course lies downwind will frequently change direc¬ 
tion by tacking instead of jibing, and will sail a series 
of broad reaches, instead of heading directly 
downwind on a course where a small wind shift may 
invite an accidental jibe. 

To tack downwind, the boat must first be brought 
round to a close reach, then swung through the 
wind’s eye. Trying to come about from a broad 


reach will seldom work, as the boat will lose its 
turning momentum as the wind ceases to fill the 
extended sail. 

Rigging your boat 

Many small boat skippers keep their craft at a pier 
or mooring all season, but an increasing number rig 
and launch their boats each time they go sailing. 
Rigging a small boat is no great problem, and every 
sailor should know how to set up and tune his own 
rigging. 



10-33 Set Mast on Supports to 
Check Rigging 


First lay the mast on supports — a pair of 
carpenter’s horses are ideal — and make sure the 
stays, shrouds, and halyards are all properly at¬ 
tached: Do not lose track of which is the forward 
side of the mast. When everything’s ready, bundle 
the standing rigging and halyards loosely and lash 
them to the mast with a couple of turns of twine. 
Don’t put these lashings on any higher than you’ll be 
able to reach when the mast is raised, however. 



Now have one crewmember guide the mast into 
its step — facing the right way — while the other 
walks the mast forward: Watch where you’re 
putting your feet. If the mast is large, it may be 
necessary to have one crewmember take the jib 
halyard to help pull the mast upright (but first be 
sure the other end of the halyard is made fast!). 


181 


















When the mast is upright and firmly stepped, 
attach the stays and shrouds to the proper turn- 
buckles or directly (in smaller boats) to the 
chainplates. Now wind the turnbuckles or shroud 
attachments with waterproof tape, to prevent the 
hardware ripping the sails. 

Now attach the boom by its universal joint (the 
gooseneck). Insert the pintles of the rudder into the 
gudgeons on the transom. Lower the centerboard or 
daggerboard (assuming the boat’s in the water). 
Make fast the mainsheet to its deck fitting and to the 
boom. 

You’re ready to put on the sails. Head the boat as 
nearly into the wind as you can. (If you’re at anchor, 
the boat will probably head into the wind by itself.) 
Bend on the mainsail first: Take it from the sailbag, 
making sure you know which corner you have in 
your hand — it should be the clew. Insert this into 
the groove along the upper edge of the boom, 
feeding the foot of the sail into the groove until the 



10-36 Bending the Mainsail 


clew is as far out along the boom as it will go. Now 
attach the tack of the sail to the tack fitting. There’s 
a fitting at the outer end of the boom — the outhaul 
— designed to set up tension on the foot of the sail, 
and this should be pulled reasonably tight. 

Your sail may have a track on boom and mast, in 
which case the corresponding foot and luff of the 
sail will be fitted with slides that ride the track. If this 
is the case, you can test the tension of the outhaul by 
tweaking the foot of the sail: It should be taut 
enough, when set up, to vibrate slightly. 



10 - 37 Two Types of Batten Pockets 


Insert the battens in the batten pockets, as shown. 
Most mainsails have two or three different sizes of 
battens, with matching pockets. Make sure the thin 
end of the batten goes in the pocket first. 

Make fast the halyard to the head of the sail. A 
bowline is a good knot to use. After checking to be 
sure the halyard isn’t fouled on any of the rigging, 
and that the mainsheet is uncleated, so the boom can 
swing free, raise the sail, feeding its luff into the mast 
groove. The sail should be hoisted till there are 
parallel creases visible along the luff. 

Now cleat and coil the halyard neatly. Exactly 
how you do it isn’t that important, so long as the 
halyard is stowed so it cannot escape and at the same 
time is quickly releasable. 



10-38 Coiling the Halyard 


182 



















To raise the jib, attach its tack to the tack fitting 
which is usually a part of the forestay chainplate. 
Next, clip the snaps along the luff to the forestay. 
Make sure all the snaps are facing in the same 
direction: If they’re not, you have a twist in the luff. 
Make fast the sheets to the clew and the halyard to 
the head of the jib, again using a bowline knot if 
special hardware snaps are not provided. 

Raise the jib until the sail’s luff is as taut as you 
can get it (but not so taut that the forestay begins to 
sag). Cleat and coil that halyard. As a point of 
interest, mainsail halyards are generally led to the 
starboard side of the mast, jib halyards to port. It’s 
not a vital thing, but if you always lead the halyards 
the same way, you won’t have to worry about which 
is which. 



Final check 

When you’re learning to sail, its a good idea to 
make a final pre-voyage check before leaving the 
pier or anchorage. 

1. Weather: Does the sky look as good as the 
forecast? If not, re-check the forecast or stay home. 

2. Equipment: Is everything aboard? Accessible? 
Stowed so it won’t fall or fly overboard? 

3. Float Plan: All boatmen should leave the 
following information with a reliable person ashore 
— (1) Where you’re going; (2) When you expect to 
return; (3) Who’s aboard; (4) What the boat looks 
like, in detail. When you get back, remember to 
cancel out your float plan. 

Setting Out 

Leaving a pier, beach or mooring is the first test of 
your sailing skill. Before you cut loose from shore, 
plan ahead: Know what to expect, and what you’re 
going to do next. Don’t act until you have a good 
idea what nearby skippers, swimmers and fishermen 
are up to. And bear in mind that a boat has no 
brakes: The only way to stop a sailboat (short of 
running into something solid) is to head into the 
wind. 

1. Start headed into the wind, with centerboard 
fully lowered. While you’re still learning, it’s not a 
bad idea to paddle to some quiet, deserted spot in 
the harbor and drop an anchor with a float, to serve 
as a practice mooring. 


2. When all is clear around you, have your 
crewmember cast off the line to the mooring buoy or 
float. As the boat drops back, the crewmember 
grasps the clew of the jib and holds it out to one side 
of the boat or the other to catch the wind. At the 
same time, you put the tiller over on the opposite 
side the jib is extended. The boat will begin to turn in 
the opposite direction, as in the illustration. 



9 

10-40 Leaving the Mooring 

3. As soon as the boat is approximately at right 
angles to the wind, the crewmember lets go of the jib 
clew and pulls the lee side jib sheet taut, while the 
skipper takes in the mainsheet. The sails should be 
taken in just enough to stop fluttering. 

You’re on your way. 


183 





Sail Trim 

Your mast should be straight on all points of 
sailing — if it isn’t, correct the adjustment of 
tumbuckles until it is. Proper sail trim does not 
require that the boat be on its ear, foaming along. 
Most boats, remember, sail best on their bottoms. 
When coming to a new heading, let out or take in the 
sheets until the sails stop shaking — no more. If the 
wind changes direction, but your heading remains 
the same, trim the sheets accordingly. 

Anchoring 

There isn’t space here to go into a long treatise on 
proper anchoring — that’s another course in itself. 
There are many tables showing the proper size 
anchor for different types and sizes of boat. Your 
anchor should have a sound anchor line, preferably 
of nylon line, at least 10 times as long as the deepest 
spot in your harbor. 

When anchoring, follow these simple steps: 

1. Drop, unsnap and stow the jib as you ap¬ 
proach your anchorage: The idea is to clear the 
foredeck, and to keep the sail dry and clean. Also, 
sails are very slippery, and one lying on deck could 
easily cause someone to slip overboard. 

2. Head into the wind, under main alone, until 
the boat comes to a stop. As it begins to drift 
backward, lower — don’t hurl — the anchor over 
the bow and feed the line slowly after it. 

3. Once the anchor touches bottom, continue to 
feed out line, but keep some tension on it, to hold the 
boat’s bow into the wind. When you’ve let out an 
amount of line equal to about seven times the depth 
of the water, tie off the anchor line. Check from time 
to time to make sure the anchor is still holding. 


Landing 

Whenever you come in for a landing, it seems the 
whole world is watching. The important thing is to 
avoid getting flustered: Even the best sailors have 
been novices in their time, and they’ll understand. 

1. As you approach, note how the other boats 
are riding. Lower your centerboard all the way. The 
idea is to time your turn into the wind, as shown in 
the illustrations, so you arrive at dock or mooring 
with little or no momentum. 


l 



10 - 42 

Approaching the Mooring: 
Keel and Centerboard Boats 





\ 

^ '^^Low*rJlb 

\ 


V 




2. Best final approach is usually close-hauled, if 
the location of other boats allows. Remember to 
allow for leeway! 


3. At one or two boat lengths downwind of the 
pier or buoy, head up sharply into the wind. If 
you’ve calculated right, your boat will coast to a 
halt, sails shaking, right at the buoy — but have a 
crewmember ready to grab it. If you’re approaching 
a dock, the crew can fend off with shod feet, but 
make sure they’re firmly seated on the deck before 
they try. If you miss, follow the procedures describ¬ 
ed under setting out, swing round and try again. 



184 










Unrigging 

Most small boats’ skippers remove the sails 
between voyages: Dacron sails deteriorate in direct 
sunlight, and in many harbors, airborn dirt may foul 
sails left furled on a boom for a few days. 


Before bagging your sails, remove the battens and 
lay each sail out — if possible — on a clean surface, 
such as a lawn. Check for tears or worn spots. Now 
fold the sail as shown until it’s a long, narrow strip, 
and then roll it up gently. Don’t fold it or roll it hard 
— try to avoid creases. 



If you do furl the mainsail on the boom, here’s 
how: 

1. Drop the sail and gather it on one side of the 
boom in one large fold of sail. 

2. Roll it toward the boom, gathering the sail as 
you go. It’s a good idea to remove the battens, if 
they’re wood, as they are likely to take a permanent 
warp. 

3. Lash the sail with elastic sail ties, just tight 
enough to hold it in place. The roll should have its 
open side facing down, so rain and spray will run off 
the sail and not be caught inside. If you have a sail 
cover, put it on over the furled sail. 




Now remove your tiller and rudder, raise the 
centerboard all the way, and clean out the boat. Be 
sure, if you sail in salt or heavily polluted water, to 
wipe off all varnished wood and bright metal with a 
clean cloth. 


185 






















In heavy weather 

Sooner or later, every sailor can expect to 
encounter weather severe enough to make sailing 
difficult or even dangerous. For the beginner, a 
careful attention to weather forecasts and to the 
appearance of sea and sky should postpone an 
encounter with heavy weather until you and your 
boat are enough of a team to handle it. 

If you do get caught out in a sudden squall, 
however, chances are you’ll get through it with no 
great trouble, if you keep your head and follow the 
principles of good seamanship. 

Some days, especially muggy, hazy summer 
afternoons, breed dangerous squalls that can creep 
up on you before you’re aware of what’s happening. 
If you’re sailing along and suddenly find the wind 
increasing dramatically, or see that a thunderstorm 
is going to strike before you can reach harbor, the 
first thing to do, preferably before the gusts get too 
strong, is drop and furl all sail. To do this, head up 
into the wind, let the sheets fly, and lower the sails as 
quickly as you can, gathering them and furling them 
as you do. Lash sails to boom or deck hardware, to 
prevent them billowing and tearing. 



Once the sails are under control, put out your 
anchor: Even if you haven’t enough line to anchor 
securely, the weight of line and anchor will hold 
your boat’s bow up into the wind — the safest 
attitude for any boat with difficult weather. 

Have your crew put on lifejackets — and set a 
good example yourself. It’s much easier to put on 


any lifesaving device in the boat than in the water. 
Tie down all loose gear and, if significant amounts 
of rain or spray get in the boat, don’t wait to bail. 

One good thing about sudden squalls is that 
they’re usually over fairly quickly. In 15 minutes or 
so, the wind should moderate enough for you to sail 
home under reduced sail. 

The kind of sail you set in strong winds will 
depend on how your boat is rigged, what sails you 
carry, and in what direction you want to go. 



Generally speaking, most small sailboats will sail 
reasonably well under mainsail alone, on any 
heading from a broad reach up to nearly close- 
hauled. In a gusty wind, it’s especially important to 
keep the boat moving, so don’t try to sail as close to 
the wind as you normally would. Also, if you’re 
broad reaching, be awake for sudden wind shifts: 
This is not the time for an unexpected jibe. 

If your course is downwind, your boat may 
handle better under jib alone. Be sure the main is 
tightly furled and the boom secured. And keep the 
jib from unnecessary flapping, which can rip the 
stitching along seams. 


186 










Your boat may be equipped with reefing gear, in 
which case you can reduce the area of the mainsail, 
while still retaining some of it for a balanced sail 
plan. On most small boats today, reefing is ac¬ 
complished by easing off the main halyard while 



simultaneously rotating the boom with a built-in or 
attachable crank, to roll the sail around it like a 
window shade. If your boat has reefing gear, 
practice using it in harbor before you try it under 
way. 


Emergency 

It may happen that, despite your best efforts, the 
boat capsizes, or turns over on its side. With most 
modern daysailers, this is an irritation, but hardly a 
disaster. Know how to right your boat and the worst 
you’ll suffer is a wetting. 

1. Before righting, count heads to make sure 
crew are safe. Don life vests or jackets, if you haven’t 
already done so. Gather floating gear and stuff it in a 
sail bag to prevent its escaping. Cast off halyards 
and pull sails down to the deck. 

2. With centerboard extended, grasp the side of 
the hull, as shown, while standing on the board. 

3. Chances are the boat will come upright by 
herself. Full of water, she will be very unstable. 
Swim alongside and bail until the water is six inches 
or so lower than the boat’s sides. 

4. Now a light-weight crewmember can climb in 
over the stern and finish bailing, after which sails 
can be raised again. With practice, especially in 
easily capsized board boats, you’ll learn how to right 
the boat without lowering sail. 

Distress 

Sometimes a mast or boom is damaged to the 
point where the boat cannot easily be sailed. If this 
happens to you, or if your sail develops a sudden 
tear, it may be best to call for help, rather than 
pushing onward to incur a big repair bill. Distress 
signals can be carried on the smallest boat: They 
should be stowed in a watertight box or bag, out of 
the reach of small children, in a place where a 
capsize won’t cause them to fall from the boat. Here 
are common ways to ask for help — never be 
ashamed to do so if you feel the situation is getting 
out of control. 




10-54 Righting Capsized Boat 


187 



























1. Flare or smoke signal: Hand-held orange 
smoke signals can be seen a long way. Be sure to 
follow instructions on the device, and hold the 
burning signal away from yourself and the boat. 

2. A distress flag — usually a bright Inter¬ 
national Orange square of plastic — can be hoisted 
in the rigging. 

3. A horn or whistle, repeatedly sounded in 
patterns of five blasts, is a recognized distress signal. 

4. Waving the American flag upside-down is 
known to be a signal of distress. 

5. With no signals at all, simply raising your 
arms over your head and lowering them level with 
your shoulders, over and over, is a standard distress 
signal. 

When making any distress signal, be sure you do 
it vigorously: You may know you’re in need of help, 
but the other fellow may think you’re just waving or 
tooting to be friendly. 

Conclusion 

There’s nothing difficult or mysterious about 


sailing, once you have the hang of it, but don’t think 
that you’ll ever know it all. That’s one of the 
fascinations of the sport: There’s always something 
new to learn, some way to improve your sailing 
skills. 

Now that you’ve completed this introduction to 
sailing, there are two complementary things to do 
next. First, practice what you’ve learned: Use it till 
you can come about, jibe, enter and leave tight 
corners with real confidence. As noted earlier, a 
good way to learn more quickly is to crew for an 
experienced sailor. 

Second, take another sailing course. One you may 
want to consider is the Coast Guard Auxiliary’s own 
Principles of Sailing, a seven-lesson course that 
explains in depth what you’ve learned here in 
outline, and which will teach you more about fine 
points of sailing than we’ve had room to touch on in 
this short space. Cost of the Auxiliary’s course is 
very slight - often no more than the price of the 
textbook - and it will expose you to the kind of 
information you must acquire to be a complete 
skipper. 



10-55 A Modern High Performance Sloop 


188 



CHAPTER n 


Weather 


Weather is one of the greatest influences on the 
sport of boating. It determines when you shall go, 
what your course will be, the time required to anive 
at your ultimate destination and in many cases, the 
degree of your enjoyment in the passage. 

As a boatman, you must realize the speed with 
which weather can change. You must learn to 
recognize those weather signs that warn of im¬ 
pending bad weather. You must know where to 
obtain the latest weather information and be able 
to relate this information to your own situation 
and capabilities. 

The importance of weather to boatmen was 
tragically emphasized in an incident that took place 
in September 1967 on Lake Michigan. Seven people 
were drowned and many others injured by seas that 
were apparently too high for the boats used. The 
tragic part is that forecasters had given warnings 
of the bad weather and these forecasts were avail¬ 
able to the boatmen, in sufficient time for the en¬ 
suing tragedies to have been avoided. 

Weather forecasts the morning of the incident 
had warned of winds increasing to 20 to 30 knots 
in the afternoon and Small Craft Warnings were 
posted. By late morning the forecasts included a 
warning of thundershowers. Many boatmen either 
did not obtain the weather reports or did not heed 
their warnings. 

The following report is quoted from the Coast 
Guard Board of Investigation convened to examine 
the disaster. 

“On 23 September 1967 approximately five hun¬ 
dred motorboats, mainly outboards of 16 feet or 

less, were underway in eastern Lake Michigan 


between Empire and Manistee, Michigan en¬ 
gaged in salmon fishing. A large number of these 
craft had been launched from ramps at these 
and intermediate communities. A number of 
boats also launched directly into Lake Michigan 
from the nearby beaches. Many of the boats 
proceeded to Platte Bay, the area of reportedly 
good fishing. The weather began to deteriorate 
at about 8:00 AM. Progressively from late morn¬ 
ing through the afternoon boatmen in the Platte 
Bay area discontinued fishing and beached their 
craft in the immediate vicinity or attempted to 
return in departing sheltered Platte Bay, exposed 
themselves to the more severe sea conditions 
along the coastline. About 200 boats attempting 
this open lake passage found it difficult and 
headed for the nearest beach area, and attempted 
to land through a heavy surf. Seven persons lost 
their lives, and all were occupants of boats which 
had capsized in or near the surf. At least 16 boats 
were damaged in making beach landings and a 
number of other boats swamped and/or capsized 
and were damaged but removed from the beaches 
before count could be made. Most occupants of 
the boats involved did not wear lifesaving de¬ 
vices although they were available to them. 
Fifteen persons were taken to hospitals suffering 
from exposure and water inhalation. None of 
those hospitalized were incapacitated for more 
than 72 hours. At least 150 persons and 75 boats 
were assisted from conditions of peril or distress 
by rescue forces.” 

The Board considered all available facts and con¬ 
cluded, in part, 

“1. That the evidence indicates the damage to 
boats, swampings and/or capsizings, and endanger- 


189 


ing of or loss of life, which occurred in the Frank¬ 
fort to Empire, Michigan area on the eastern shore 
of Lake Michigan on 23 September 1967, were 
primarily caused by the operation of boats of 
limited capability for the existing weather con¬ 
ditions by persons not experienced in open lake 
operations while: 

a. attempting hazardous open water passages 
in trying to return to their launch sites, 

b. proceeding within, or too close to, heavy 
surf, 

c. attempting beach landings through heavy 
surf. 

2. That recognizing the limited experience and 
boating knowledge of many boat operators, and the 
sea conditions prevailing during most of 23 Septem¬ 
ber 1967, the general type of boat in use—less than 
16 feet in length and of open construction—did not 
afford the desired level of safety. It is emphasized 
that this assessment does not reflect on the ad¬ 
equacy and safety of any particular size or design 
boat per se, but rather is made in relation to the 
general operator capability and operating con¬ 
ditions existent. 

3. That the evidence indicates that a contribut¬ 
ing cause to the casualties and endangerment to life 
and property which occurred on 23 September 
1967 was a general lack of knowledge of boating 
safety by an appreciable number of boatmen in 
one or more of the following respects: 

a. failure to obtain weather forecasts, 

b. failure to recognize or heed the small craft 
warning signal displayed at the Frankfort 
Coast Guard Station, 

c. disregard of the recommendations of Coast 
Guard and other law enforcement person¬ 
nel to not proceed into Lake Michigan 
because of unfavorable weather conditions, 

d. proceeding into the open lake at the same 
time other boatmen, experienced in open 
lake operation, aborted their cruises be¬ 
cause of observed sea conditions, 

e. failure to recognize or heed indications of 
deteriorating weather, 

f. failure to attempt to land at the nearest 
available shore upon first observing the in¬ 
creasing winds and seas. 


g. failure to wear available life saving devices 
while operating in heavy sea or surf. 

4. That the evidence indicates that the weather 
conditions predicted by the National Weather Ser¬ 
vice for 23 September 1967 materialized as forecast. 
The wind and seas conditions progressively wors¬ 
ened from about 8:00 A.M. to 3:00 P.M.; it was 
not a sudden storm which endangered the boats 
and their occupants. 

5. That because of the apparent general lack of 
knowledge of weather on the part of many oper¬ 
ators of small boats it is probable that many boat¬ 
men do not realize that: 

a. the weather forecast can change within a 
few hours, 

b. the absence of any language in a forecast 
expressly stating a small craft warning 
does not remove that possibility for suc¬ 
ceeding periods, 

c. the wind force and direction must be 
evaluated in relation to the-particular 
shore, 

d. small craft warnings are simply precau¬ 
tionary and indicate that further informa¬ 
tion is available and should be obtained.” 

Although other factors were involved the funda¬ 
mental one was the failure of the boatmen to 
obtain and heed weather information. Coast Guard 
and Sheriff patrol boats had warned boatmen to 
remain in harbors because of the weather but many 
ignored the warning. 

The important lesson to be learned from this in¬ 
cident is that weather should be taken seriously. 
Get the latest report before you depart, and keep 
informed while you are out. 

Movement of Air Over the Earth 

For us to understand why weather varies from 
day to day it is necessary to learn something 
about our Earth’s atmosphere. The lower atmos- 
sphere consists of air, which is a mixture of oxy¬ 
gen, nitrogen, and other gases, plus water vapor. 
You are familiar with the temperature of air on 
the surface; however, the temperature drops as we 
climb to higher altitudes and is about—50° F at 
50,000 ft. Air in the lower atmosphere is heated by 


190 


NORTH POLE 



11-1 Ideal Atmospheric Circulation for a Uniform 
Nonrotating Earth 

incoming solar radiation and heat radiation from 
the Earth’s surface. The temperature is dependent 
on the season and latitude. 


The sun’s rays are transmitted more directly and 
intensely to the lower latitudes near the equator, 
causing the air there to be heated more than in 
the higher latitudes. The rotation of the earth 
around the sun and topographical features also help 
to make the true circulation very complicated. 

This warm air rises and is replaced by cooler air 
from regions closer to the poles. With this in mind, 
you can envision a circulation pattern such as de¬ 
picted here. 

Air does indeed circulate about the earth, but it 
is not as simple as this. The earth rotates on its 
axis. Just as you would have trouble making a 
straight line across a moving record turntable so 
air set in motion does not follow a straight line 
across the moving surface of the Earth. As the 
Earth rotates under the moving air, its path relative 
to the Earth bends to the right in the Northern 
Hemisphere. This is called the coriolis effect. 

Upper air flowing north in the Northern Hemi¬ 
sphere will bend at an increasing rate until it 
“bunches” up near 30° N latitude. This causes 
an increase in atmospheric pressure and East-West 
winds. Since the pressure and wind are different, 



11-2 Thunderhead 


191 













the weather is different here than in other areas to 
the north or south. So you can see the illustrated 
circulation pattern is oversimplified. The important 
fact, however, is that air masses do move about the 
earth. As we will see, different types of weather 
are associated with air masses and these also move 
about the Earth. 

Clouds 

We have stated that the atmosphere contains 
water vapor. Hotter air is capable of holding more 


vapor than colder air. When a weatherman says the 
relative humidity is now 70%, he means that at the 
current temperature, the air is holding 70% of the 
vapor it is capable of holding. 

We know that air, if warmed, will rise. We 
also know that the temperature gradually drops as 
altitude increases. One cause of this is the drop in 
pressure. Rising humid air will also cool and will 
continue until it is cooled to the point where it 
can no longer hold its moisture and reaches 100% 
relative humidity. Here the moisture will condense 



192 



into very small droplets and elouds will form. If 
enough moisture is formed into a cloud, the drop¬ 
lets will combine and become larger until they are 
too heavy to remain in the cloud. Precipitation will 
then occur, usually in the form of rain or snow. 

There are many different types of clouds. Meteo¬ 
rologists can identify over 70 of them but we will 
not attempt to describe them. 

Weathermen classify clouds according to how 
they were formed and their location (altitude). 
We saw that warmed air will rise and, if humid 
enough, will form clouds. Often clouds can form 
if air is cooled by some other means. Clouds can 
be located at many altitudes such as low rain 
clouds, high “mares tails”, or thick thunder clouds 
extending from low to high altitudes. Often on a 
warm sunny day puffs of cumulus clouds will float 
by you. 

Atmospheric Stability 

If the surface temperature is much higher than 
temperatures aloft, an unstable pattern of rising air 
and cloud formation will occur. If the surface tem¬ 
perature is equal or nearly so, to that aloft, a stable 


situation exists and cloud formations will be mini¬ 
mal. The line of demarcation between stable and 
unstable conditions is dependent on the rela¬ 
tionship between both temperature changes and 
changes in altitude. As we will see later, an un¬ 
stable condition can cause various kinds of bad 
weather. 

Weather Instruments 

There are several devices used to describe the 
weather by measuring physical properties of the 
atmosphere. Unless you are planning to formulate 
your own forecast, having a lot of weather instru¬ 
ments will not be of much benefit to you. There 
are so few that would be of great use to you. Leave 
the reading and interpreting to the professionals. 

The following definitions are intended for your 
general information only. An Anemometer, meas¬ 
ures wind speed. A Barometer measures atmos¬ 
pheric pressure in either inches of mercury or 
millibars. A Thermometer measures degree of tem¬ 
perature. A Hygrometer measures dew point tem¬ 
perature, below which moisture in the air will 



193 




11-6 Formation of a Low Pressure System Along a Front 

194 



























condense into droplets as fog or a eloud at higher 
altitude. 

Further explanation on this might be help¬ 
ful. A hygrometer is aetually two thermometers, 
with one enelosed in a wet gauze. The reading of 
eaeh is noted. The “wet bulb” thermometer will 
read lower beeause of the eooling effect of evapora¬ 
tion. The amount of evaporation depends on the 
amount of moisture in the air. If the air is humid, 
there will be little evaporation and the “wet bulb” 
thermometer will not read very much lower than 
the air temperature as measured by the “dry bulb” 
thermometer. In other words the differenee be¬ 
tween the two thermometer readings varies with 
humidity. By measuring this difference and the air 
temperature, the relative humidity and the dew 
point ean be caleulated. Later we will see how in¬ 
struments mentioned above are used intensivelv in 
foreeasting weather. 

Air Masses 

An area sueh as the eontinental United States 
“imports” mueh of its weather or at least the in¬ 
gredients for it. Basieally, air masses eome from 
either the eooler regions of the North or the warmer 
regions of the South. If an air mass eomes from the 
sea it will be more moist than a mass originating 
over land. Meteorologists note the different types 
of air masses and traek them earefully beeause the 
movement of air masses eauses weather. 

Fronts 

Where air masses of different types meet, fronts 
exist. Fronts are signifieant beeause it is along 
these borders that most severe weather oceurs. 

An example might elarify this somewhat. A 
mass of eold air from Canada has invaded the 
United States. On its border there exists a eold 
front. The eold air is heavy and stays low to the 
ground. There is warm air, probably humid, ahead 
of the front. Somewhere along the edge of cold 
air, a weak spot in the front might develop. It 
eould be eaused by a mountain in its path. Heje 
the warm air will be surrounded by cooler air. 
It will rise, clouds will form, and precipitation will 
probably follow. 


The rising pattern of the warm air will eause a 
drop in barometrie pressure and a elearly defined 
low pressure area or a “low” ean soon be loeated. 
Around the low, there is a wide area of elouds and 
preeipitation. 

As more warm air is undereut by the eool air, 
more clouds form and the area of preeipitation in¬ 
creases. Winds tend to head into the low; but the 
Coriolis effect veers them to the right (Northern 
Hemisphere) so that a eireular eounter eloekwise 
pattern develops. The warm air will be surrounded 
on the three sides by the eool air as it circulates 
around the low. 

Ultimately the low will be completely surrounded 
by eold air. The supply of warm air able to rise 
and form clouds is reduced to nothing. With the 
rising air pattern which originally caused the low 
pressure area now stopped, the low will become 
less vigorous and will eventually dissipate. 

The entire proeess from formation to dissipation 
may take 3 to 10 days or more. 

Different air mass types will form various kinds 
of weather. Weathermen eompare the type of air 
invading an area with the air already there. If there 
are great differenees in temperature and moisture 
eontent, a great deal of activity along the front ean 
be expeeted. 

Weather Forecasting 

The National Weather Service formulates fore¬ 
casts for the U.S. and adjoining waters. The proeess 
demands the input of a great deal of surface and 
upper air data from stations around the world. 

Eaeh weather station observes the following: 

1. temperature 

2. wind speed and direetion 

3. eloud type and amount of eoverage 

4. barometrie pressure and change in last 
three hours 

5. weather in last 6 hours and present weather 

6. visibility 

7. dewpoint 

8. preeipitation amount 


195 


The observation data from many stations are 
eolleeted at a eenter and plotted on a weather 
map. Using this information, an analyst then tries 
to loeate different air masses and the fronts that 
separate them. He does this by eomparing tem¬ 
perature, barometrie pressure, dew point, and wind 
veloeitv. This allows the analyst to “see” masses of 
eold dry air or warm moist air. Bv examining the 
various stations’ reports, he ean tell whieh way the 
air masses are moving and what kind of fronts he is 
observing, he ean then locate the well defined high, 
or low pressure areas. Next he draws in isobars 
(lines that identify places of equal barometric 
pressure). 

With all this information on the map, the fore¬ 
caster can then attempt to estimate what condi¬ 
tions will prevail in the future. Using wind speeds 
and direction he can predict in what direction the 
high and low pressure areas will travel in a given 
time and what can be expected of their associated 
weather. 

Fog 

One weather feature that is of particular con¬ 
cern to boatmen is fog. Fog is formed when air is 
cooled to the point (the dewpoint) where its mois¬ 
ture condenses into very small droplets. This is 
similar to the way a cloud forms. Fog is reallv a 
cloud that is on, or near the ground. 

‘ To understand more about fog, let’s review 
some facts we discussed earlier. Cool air cannot 
hold as much moisture as warm. Thus if air that 
is already moist is made cooler, fog will form. 
This occurs in several ways. 

On land, if the air is very humid at sunset, the 
land, and the air close to it, will cool off and fog 
may form. This is known as radiation fog. 

When the sun rises the following morning, it 
will warm the air a few degrees. The condensed 
moisture will disappear and the fog will dissipate 
(“burn off”). 

The fog most common to boatmen is caused by 
moist air moving over a cool surface. An example 
of this is warm moist air from land blowing over 
cold coastal waters. This is called advection fog 
because the temperature change is brought on by 
air moving to a cooler location. It is a particular 


hazard to boatmen because it commonly occurs on 
coastal waters especially in cold seasons, and it 
moves in a “bank” that can overtake and surprise 
the unwar}' boatman. The fog will usually be con¬ 
centrated close to the water’s surface and may be 
absent at a height of 50 feet. This is because the 
water is the cooling agent. 

Fog is likely wherever an area of cold water 
exists; as for example, on the Pacific coast, where 
upwelling brings cold water to the surface. For this 
same reason, fog can form on rivers where cold 
water flows through areas with very moist air. The 
cold river will cool air near the surface causing 
fog. Sometimes this situation occurs below dams 
because water becomes cold in the deep pool 
behind. 

Fortunately, weathermen, by carefully predicting 
temperature change and measuring dew point 
(the temperature at which moisture condenses), 
can predict fog with high reliability. Marine 
weather forecasts include information about any 
anticipated fog. Inasmuch as the normal weather 
forecasts often don’t give this information, wise 
boatmen always get the marine forecast before 
departing. 

Weather Information 

The best source for weather information is the 
one that is easiest for you to obtain and most 
up to date. Several sources are noted here. 

Your instructor will have information on the 
availability of each one in your area. RE¬ 
CORDED TELEPHONE MARINE WEATHER 
REPORTS are available in many large cities. If 
there is one in your area, it is a very convenient 
means of finding the forecast. Call while you are 
planning your boat trip, for instance, the day be¬ 
fore, and again just before you leave to get the 
latest report. 

VHF-FM CONTINUOUS MARINE 
WEATHER BROADCASTS are another excellent 
source. These National Weather Service radio 
weather transmissions repeat taped messages about 
ever}’ five minutes. Tapes are updated every 3-6 
hours and include weather and radar summaries, 
wind observations, visibility, sea and detailed lake 
conditions including reports from Coast Guard 


196 


units, and detailed loeal and area foreeasts. When 
severe weather warnings are in order, routine trans¬ 
missions are interrupted and the broadeast is de¬ 
voted to emergeney warnings. A sample detailed 
loeal marine weather foreeast that might be in- 
eluded in a National Weather Serviee Broadeast 
is given below: 

‘The marine foreeast for the Chesapeake Bay 
north of Point Lookout and for the lower 
Potomae. Easterly winds 10 to 15 knots this 
afternoon, tonight, and Tuesday. Weather 


eloudy with rain this afternoon and tonight 
and ehanee of some rain or drizzle Tuesday. 
Visibility 3 to 5 miles, but variable to 1 mile 
or less in fog tonight.” 

National Weather Serviee radio weather trans¬ 
missions ean usually be reeeived up to 40 miles 
from the antenna site, depending on terrain and 
type of reeeiver. The frequencies used, 162.55 MHz 
and 162.40 MHz lie just above the marine band; 
therefore, special tuners or receivers are required. 
An increasing \’ariety of these are becoming avail- 


SMALL CRAFT 


STORM 




DAYTIME SIGNAL NIGHT SIGNAL 

One RED pennant displayed by day and a RED 
light over a WHITE light at night to indicate 
winds as high as 33 knots (38 m.p.h.) and/or 
sea conditions considered dangerous to small 
craft operations are forecast for the area. 



□ 


DAYTIME SIGNAL 



NIGHT SIGNAL 


A single square RED flag with a BLACK center 
displayed during daytime and two RED lights 
at night to indicate that winds 48 knots 
(55 m.p.h.) and above are forecast for the 
area. If the winds are associated with a tropical 
cyclone (hurricane), the “Storm Warning” 
display indicates winds 48 to 63 knots (55 to 
73 m.p.h.) are forecast. 


GALE 


HURRICANE 



DAYTIME SIGNAL NIGHT SIGNAL 

Two RED pennants displayed by day and a 
WHITE light above a RED light at night to 
indicate winds within the range 34 to 47 knots 
(39 to 54 m.p.h.) are forecast for the area. 



DAYTIME SIGNAL 



NIGHT SIGNAL 


Displayed only in connection with a tropical 
cyclone (hurricane). Two square RED flags 
with BLACK centers displayed by day and a 
WHITE light between two RED lights at night 
to indicate that winds 64 knots (74 m.p.h.) and 
above are forecast for the area. 


11-7 Warning Display Signals 


197 
















able ranging in price from $20.00 to $200.00 or 
more. It’s a good idea to equip your boat with one. 

SCHEDULED WEATHER SERVICE MA¬ 
RINE BROADCASTS ON COMMERCIAL 
AM STATIONS are also available in a great many 
areas. Typical Schedule times are early morning, 
noon, early evening, and midnight. Some of these 
broadcasts come directly from the Weather Ser\’ice 
offices and contain all the necessar)^ information. 
Details for your area will be covered by your in¬ 
structor. 

MARINE RADIOTELEPHONE WEATHER 
SERVICE FORECASTS are broadcast on Coast 
Guard working frequencies in the 2 MHz band on 
a scheduled basis. An announcement is often made 
on 2182 kHz prior to the broadcast. The most com¬ 
mon schedule is every 12 hours. 

Since the range of 2 MHz stations is usually 
wide, the weather information broadcast covers a 
large area. You must pay special attention to in¬ 
formation for your area. Even though the forecast 
for a large region is for generally good weather, 
hazardous weather may be experienced in a local 
area. 

Your radio telephone is also valuable when 
special storm warnings are issued by the Weather 
Service. Special broadcasts are made over the usual 
marine radiotelephone stations. These broadcasts 
are also announced in most cases over 2182 kHz. 
If you have your set tuned to this frequency, which 
should normally be the case when underway, you 
will hear the announcement and instructions to 
tune to the correct frequency. 

TELEVISION WEATHER REPORTS are pre¬ 
sented by almost all TV stations on a scheduled 
basis. Some reports include boating forecasts. 

NEWSPAPERS in most cities contain weather 
forecasts and usually a simple weather map. Beware 
of old information. Hunt through the forecast and 
you will see that it is usually more than 12 hours 
old. More information can be obtained from radio 
(AM, EM, or VHF-FM) and TV. It is suggested 
that these sources be consulted. 

WARNING DISPLAY SIGNALS are posted in 
many boating areas when directed by the Weather 


Service. Most display sites use only the daytime 
warning signal and do not post nighttime signals. 

Pennants and Lights 

The most common signal seen by boatmen is the 
small craft advisory. The term “small craft” in¬ 
cludes boats of many designs and sizes, and the 
advisory covers a wide range of wind speed and sea 
condition. It forecasts possible hazardous condi¬ 
tions to small boats, such as 30 knot winds or 
scattered afternoon thundershowers. You may see 
it displayed on what appears to be a beautiful day 
for boating and be tempted to ignore it. Do not do 
this. Instead, regard the small craft advisory as an 
alert that wind and/or sea conditions potentially 
dangerous to “small craft” exist or are forecast. 

The more severe gale and storm warnings should 
be given more respect. If these warnings are dis¬ 
played it is unlikely that you would want to go out. 

You may note from Fig. 11-7 that the Storm 
Warning can have two meanings. If no hurricane 
is around, it means winds over 48 knots and often 
of much greater velocity, are forecast. When the 
winds are part of a hurricane system the meaning 
changes to 48-63 knots and a special Hurricane 
Warning is used for winds 64 knots and above. 

Watch the Weather 

We hope that before you depart on a boating 
trip, you take time to get the latest weather in¬ 
formation. However, your need for weather in¬ 
formation does not stop there. While you are out, 
have a radio of some kind aboard and check the 
weather broadcasts periodically. If you hear static 
on your AM radio, it may be an indication of 
thunderstorm activity nearby. Keep your weather 
eye “peeled” for the approach of dark, threatening 
clouds that often form part of a squall or thunder¬ 
storm. You may see lightning but hear no thunder 
if the storm is too far away. 

Try to note any increase in wind speed, increase 
in sea conditions, or shift in wind direction that 
may be occurring. If you are enjoying yourself in 
a protected anchorage this will often not be readily 
apparent. A judicious weather eye may save you an 
uncomfortable ride home. 


198 


Local Weather Conditions 

You may have noticed that during the warm 
season an afternoon breeze will very often come up 
to cool you and provide good sailing weather. You 
have probably wondered what the reason for this is. 

The sun heats the land and sometime during the 
late morning or afternoon, a “sea” breeze forms. 
The heating of the land, if excessive, can cause an 
unstable condition which was discussed earlier. 
As warm air rises clouds will form. If the warm air 
is plentiful and moisture laden, conditions may be 
right for the formation of a thunderstorm. With 
sundown the flow halts. 

At night, the pattern will be reversed. Water 
temperature does not vary at all. The air overlving 
water is relatively warm. It rises a little and cooler 
air from land areas moves in to fill the space. 

Thunderstorms 

This weather is of particular concern to boat¬ 
men because of the rain and lightning and also be¬ 
cause of squalls or sudden violent winds that often 
accompany it. Individual storms cannot be pre¬ 
dicted with great accuracy and are capable of form¬ 
ing in hours. We will describe a typical storm and 
see how it forms. 

It is a hot summer day. The weather forecast 
warns of “widely scattered afternoon thunder¬ 
showers.” As you depart on your boat at noon it 
is a beautiful day with light breezes and a few puffs 
of cumulus clouds floating by. 

During the day the land has been heated and 
the sea air has been blown landward. The moist 
air becomes warm and rises forming clouds. With a 
continuing supply of this air, clouds will grow 
larger and rise higher. 

From aboard your boat you notice larger clouds 
forming nearby. One cloud in particular has great 
upward development growing higher and larger and 
giving the appearance of a misshapen cauliflower. 

This cloud has found a supply of hot, moisture 
laden air and is growing at a rapid rate. Near the 
top, which may be 25,000 ft., moisture is condens¬ 
ing and forming ice crystals. When a certain 
amount of moisture has condensed it falls towards 
the earth as rain or even hail and snow. The falling 


precipitation causes a “chute” to form in the 
center of the cloud. The wind velocity in this area 
is high because of the coolness of the air and the 
weight of its moisture. When these high winds 
strike the surface of the water they produce squalls 
accompanied by heavy pelting precipitation. 

Your observation indicates that the cloud has 
continued to grow. It rises to an altitude where 
the winds are stronger and begins to assume an 
“anvil” shape as the top of the cloud flattens out. 
The higher the cloud, the more severe its storm 
will be. The storm cloud moves in the same direc¬ 
tion as other clouds. The direction is indicated by 
the point of the anvil. A dark area of rain is visible 
under the middle of the cloud. You see the flash 
of lightning and hear the clap of thunder off in 
the distance. Incidentally, the distance between 
you and the. storm, can be estimated by multiplying 
the seconds that elapse between a flash of lightning 
and a clap of thunder by 0.2. A five second delay 
would mean that the storm is about 1 mile away. 

As the storm approaches you, a low threatening 
black cloud rolls toward you. As this cloud ap¬ 
proaches you notice that white objects such as 
sails and boat hulls appear to have a bright, almost 
fluorescent appearance. Suddenly the wind dies 
completely and you think perhaps the storm has 
passed over. Suddenly, you are hit with a gust of 
wind and a driving rain. The rain is so heavy that 
visibility is reduced to near zero and even your 
windshield wipers are inadequate. This continues 
for a few minutes and then the rain and wind gradu¬ 
ally stop. Soon the storm passes and the sky clears. 
A sudden storm is ver\^ exciting but it can also be 
verv dangerous. Squalls can have winds of 30-40 or 
more knots and will stir up very steep, choppy seas. 

Be weather prudent. Keep your eyes open—par¬ 
ticularly if the weather forecast contains a word of 
warning. Watch for clouds that are building rapidly 
in height. Listen for static on your radio. If you 
think there’s a good chance of thunderstorms, do 
not venture too far from protected waters. 

If it appears you are going to be caught in the 
approaching storm, make your way to the nearest 
safe anchorage and ride it out at anchor. Button up 
any covers you may have, to keep out some of the 
rain. Stay away from any objects that may provide 
a path for lightning. Turn on your anchor light so 


199 


other people can see you. The storm will probably 
last only a few minutes; but it may give you a 
rough ride and a severe drenching while it does. 

Sources for Further Study 

Weather is a very interesting topic. We have 
covered only the basics here. If you are interested 
in going deeper into the subject, the following 
references are suggested: 

Weather for the Mariner, W. J. Kotsch, 

U. S. Naval Institute. 


Weather, H. S. Zim, P. E. Lehr, R. W. Burnett, 
Golden Press. A good book for those who want easy 
reading. 

Weather, Water, and Boating, D. A. Whelpley, 
Cornell Maritime Press. A very readable book writ¬ 
ten in boatman’s language. 

Meterology, W. L. Donn, McGraw-Hill. 


200 


CHAPTER 12 


Radiotelephone 


Introduction 

The modern marine radiotelephone is unques¬ 
tionably one of the most important items of safety 
equipment available to owners of pleasure craft, 
and you are well-advised to purchase an efficient 
radiotelephone for your boat if you do not already 
have one. While a radiotelephone can often be a 
convenience in the sense that you can commu¬ 
nicate with other craft or with the shore, its 
principal purpose is safety. If you encounter 
difficulties while underway, your call for assistance 
on your radiotelephone may make the difference 
between inconvenience and disaster. At all times, 
day and night, there are many radio stations 
listening on assigned frequencies for distress calls 
from mariners in trouble. These include Coast 
Guard Stations and vessels, merchant ships, many 
coastal commercial stations and many small craft. 
So, if your radiotelephone is operating properly, it 
is almost a certainty that your call for assistance 
will be heard. 

What is a Radiotelephone 

A radiotelephone is actually a small radio 
station. It is similar to a commercial station in the 
sense that signals transmitted by your radio¬ 
telephone can be heard by any radio receiver which 
is within range and is tuned to the same frequency. 
It differs from a commercial radio station in that a 
commercial station broadcasts only. Your radio¬ 
telephone has the capability of receiving as well as 
transmitting, hence the designation “radio¬ 
telephone.” Since any station within range can 
receive your messages, these messages become, in a 


sense, public. For this reason you must be more 
careful about what you say over the air than you 
might be in a private conversation over your phone 
at home. 



12-1 Radiotelephone Set 


If yours is a pleasure craft, and you do not carry 
paying passengers, you are not legally required to 
have a radiotelephone aboard. If you install a 
radiotelephone on your boat, it beeomes what is 
technically known as a “voluntarily equipped ves¬ 
sel.” But even though you are voluntarily equipped 
with a radio-telephone, you are still obliged to 
comply with certain rules and regulations. 

All nongovernment radio stations in the coun¬ 
try (including your radiotelephone) fall under ■ 
the jurisdiction of the Federal Communications 


201 


Commission. The FCC has issued a code of rules 
which regulate (among other things) the stations 
themselves, the operators, the format and content 
of transmissions and the frequencies to be used. 
In addition. The FCC has been empowered to 
enforce these regulations by warnings, revocation 
of licenses, fines, and, in some cases, imprison¬ 
ment. So—when you buy that brand new radio¬ 
telephone you become involved immediately with 
a whole new body of law. 

Later on in this chapter we will discuss the rules 
and regulations which apply to you and your 
radiotelephone. We will also discuss proper oper¬ 
ating procedures. But, before we do this, let’s take 
a look at the frequencies available and the systems 
in use on these frequencies. 

The Two Radiotelephone Systems 

There are two voice communications systems 
available to marine users which are designed to 
meet the dual requirements of safety and utility. 
Both systems permit communications between 
vessels and between ship and shore. They are 
commonly referred to as the 2-3 MHz system and 
the VHF-FM (156-174 MHz) system. Multiples of 
1,000 cycles are written as kHz (Kilohertz) and 
multiples of 1,000,000 cycles are written as MHz 
(Megahertz). This new unit honors Heinrich Hertz, 
an early pioneer in radio. 

The 2-3 MHz System 

The International Distress and Calling Fre¬ 
quency, 2182 kHz, is the keystone of the 2-3 MHz 
band radiotelephone system. This medium range 
frequency is widely guarded and the chances of 
being heard in an emergency are usually excellent. 
The other frequencies available for use on this 
band have the same characteristics of relatively 
long range, although severe congestion exists in 
many areas. This band is badly affected by both 
natural and man-made interference. Range is 
dependent on the rf output of the set; the greater 
the rf power output, the greater the range. In 
addition, the 2-3 MHz frequencies themselves have 
a characteristic known as “long distance propoga- 
tion,” which, at night, can cause interference with 


other stations well beyond the normal operating 
range of the set. Thus, undisciplined use of the 
radiotelephone after dark may cause a nuisance 
over a comparatively large geographic area. 

Frequencies available to the 2-3 MHz system 
and their use are: 


Frequency 

Use 

Areas 

2003 kHz 

Ship-to-ship 

Great Lakes area only. 

2142 kHz 

Ship-to-ship 

Pacific area south of 42°N, on 
a daytime basis only. 

2182 kHz 

Distress, Safety, 
Calling 

.\11 areas. 

2638 kHz 

Ship-to-ship 

.All areas. 

2738 kHz 

Ship-to-ship 

.All areas except the Great Lakes 
and the Gulf of Mexico. 

2830 kHz 

Ship-to-ship 

Gulf of Mexico only. 


In addition to the above, certain frequencies are assigned for 
handling public correspondence or telephone messages with the 
shore. 


The VHF-FM (156-174 MHz) System 

The channel used for distress and calling is 
channel 16 (156.8 MHz). This channel is the key 
stone of the VHF-FM band (156-174 MHz) mari¬ 
time mobile radiotelephone system. Channel 16 is 
guarded by Coast Guard ship and shore stations, 
many municipal agencies and an increasing number 
of merchant vessels and pleasure craft. Minimum 
interference from other stations and reduced noise 
levels are notable advantages of this system. Fre¬ 
quency modulated systems (as is this system) are 
relatively unaffected by natural and man-made 
interference. This often means more effective 
communications. Very high frequency (VHF) radio 
waves travel in a straight line and will not “bend” 
or reflect over the horizon. This limits VHF commu¬ 
nications to a maximum of about 40 miles. 
However, range is very much dependent upon the 
height of the transmitting and receiving antennas, 
rf output is limited to 25 watts, and a switch to 
limit output to 1 watt is required for short range 
harbor communications. For non-government use 
there are 38 communication and 2 weather chan¬ 
nels on this band, VHF-FM (the 156-174 MHz 
band) will become the primary communications 
system for all-short range communications. 


202 


Channels available to the VHF-FM (156-174 
MHz) system and their use are: 


Channel designator 

Frequency (MHz) 

Points of communica¬ 

Ship 

Coast 

tion 

Distress, Safety and Calling 

16. 

156.800 

156. 800 

Intership and ship to 
coast. 



Intership Safety 


06. 


156.300 


156.300 


Intership. 


Port Operations 


65. 

156. 275 

156.275 

Intership and ship to 
coast. 

66. 

156.325 

156.325 

Do. 

12. 

156.600 

156.600 

Do. 

73. 

156.675 

156.675 

Do. 

14. 

156. 700 

156. 700 

Do. 

74. 

156. 725 

156. 725 

Do. 

20. 

157.000 

161.600 

Do. 


Navigational 


13. 

156.650 

156.650 

Intership and ship to 




coast. 


Environmental 


15. 


156. 750 


Coast to ship. 


State Control 


17, 


156.850 


156.850 


Ship to coast. 


Commercial 


07. 

! 156.350 

156.350 

Intership and ship to 


1 


coast. 

67. 

1.56.375 


Intership. 

08. 

156.400 


Do. 

09. 

156.450 

156.450 

Intership and ship to 




coast. 

10. 

156.500 

156.500 

Do. 

11. 

156.550 

156.550 

Do. 

77. 

156.875 


Intership. 

18. 

156.900 1 

156.900 

Intership and ship to 




coast. 

19. 

156.950 

156.950 

Do. 

79. 

156.975 ' 

156. 975 

Do. 

80. 

157.025 1 

157.025 

Do. 

88. 

157.425 


Intership. 





Noncommercial 


68. 

156 425 

156. 425 

Intership and ship to 
coast. 

09. 

156.450 

1.56.450 

Ship to coast. 

69. 

156. 475 

156.475 

Do. 

70. 

156.525 


Intership. 

71. 

156.575 

156.575 

Ship to coast. 

72. 

156. 625 


Intership. 

Ship to coast. 

78. 

156.925 

156.925 


Public Correspondence 


24. 

157.200 

161.800 

Ship to public coast. 

84. 

157.225 

161 825 

Do. 

25. 

157.2.50 

161.850 

Do. 

85. 

157.275 

161.875 

Do. 

26. 

157.300 

161.900 

Do. 

86. 

157.325 

161.925 

Do. 

27. 

157.350 

161.950 

Do. 

87. 

157.375 

161. 975 

Do. 

28. 

157.400 

162.000 

Do. 


Selection of VHF-FM Channels 

There are so many channels available that you 
may be puzzled as to which ones to install in your 
set. Here is the reasoning to use in such selection. 
Every ship must have Channels 06 and 16. No mat¬ 
ter what ship you call or answer, you can shift from 
16 to 6 to exchange information. Channel 06, how¬ 
ever, should be reserved for important, “safety" 
communication and not used for routine business 
between vessels. 

Channel 68 is the universal small boat channel. 
It may also be used by coast stations at yacht clubs 
and marinas. Two other channels, 70 and 72, are 
limited to non-commercial (yacht) intership com¬ 
munication. It would be good to have one of these 
perhaps picking 70 as the first choice. Channels 69, 
71 and 78 are also non-commercial but intended 
only for ship to coast. These would most likely 
be used by a particular yacht club which wishes to 
have an almost private channel for its own use. 
These channels should not be installed unless you 
belong to such an organization. 

Channel 09 is the one frequency that is both 
commercial and non-commercial. Consequently it 
is most used by docks, boat yards, marinas and 
businesses to contact ships. It is important that you 
have this channel. 

There is no universal channel for Port Operations 
but most Coast Guard stations use Channel 22 
(Government-non government liaison channel). 
Therefore it is one of the channels you would be able 
to switch to in order to work a Coast Guard radio 
station after initial contact on Channel 16. 

There are nine channels for “Public Service” 
usage, which means to make calls to shore tele¬ 
phone numbers. You should install those that will 
be used in your boating area. 

There are two continuous weather broadcasting 
channels. The one in your area should be installed. 

To summarize, a good choice of channels would 
be as follows: 

Channel Usage 

16 Calling and distress. 

06 Intership safety. 


203 





































































































68 Working channel between yachts and 

from a yacht to a marina or club. 

09 Working channel for yacht to dock 

or marina. 

22 Working channel for contact with 

Coast Guard or for Port Operations. 
* Public Correspondence (Telephone 

calls)* determine local channel 
WX Continuous weather broadcasts. 

As the VHF-FM system grows, you will want 
more channels. A set with 12 channels will supply 
sufficient room to expand. 

Functions 

The 2-3 MHz and the VHF-FM (156-174 MHz) 
radiotelephone systems each provide for three 
basic communication functions. In their order of 
priority, these are: 

SAFETY-OPERATIONS-BUSINESS 

Safety Function 

The safety function is provided by interna¬ 
tionally designating one frequency from each 
system for safety communications between all 
stations. The designated safety frequencies (dis¬ 
tress and calling frequencies) are used for calling 
and answering to insure that a maximum number 
of stations stand watch on these frequencies. 
Provision has been made in the 2-3 MHz system, 
and in the VHF-FM system, for shore station 
broadcasts of weather reports, notices to mariners 
and other information necessary for the safety of 
navigation. 

Operations Function 

The operational function is concerned with the 
exchange of information pertaining to navigation, 
movement, or management of vessels. 

Business Function 

The business function is concerned with eco¬ 
nomic and commercial matters related directly 
to the purpose for which the vessel is used. 

How Your Radiotelephone Works 

Your radiotelephone is different from your 


phone at home or office in one principal feature. 
On your home phone both parties can (and often 
do) talk at the same time, with the louder voice 
usually emerging triumphant. On your shipboard 
radiotelephone this is not possible. Your station 
consists of a transmitter and a receiver, using a 
common antenna. Your transmitter is controlled 
(usually) by a ‘‘push-to-talk” button or switch on 
the microphone. When this switch is depressed, 
the transmitter circuit is engaged and the receiv¬ 
ing circuit is disengaged. When the “push-to- 
talk” button is released, the receiver is engaged 
and the transmitter is not engaged. So, on your 
radiotelephone you can either transmit or receive, 
but you cannot do both at the same time. 

After you have called another station you must 
release the microphone switch before you can 
hear the other station's reply. The operator of the 
other station must, in turn, release his microphone 
switch before he can hear your reply to his trans¬ 
mission. If both stations transmit at the same 
time, neither can hear the other because the re¬ 
ceiving circuits of both stations are disengaged. 

How The Systems Should Work 

Technically, your boat’s radiotelephone is known 
as a Maritime Mobile Station. FCC Rules clearly 
stipulate that all Maritime Mobile Stations must 
maintain an efficient listening watch on either 
2182 kHz or Channel 16 at all times while the 
station receiver is turned on and the station is 
not being used for communications on another 
frequency. Absolute priority must be given to dis¬ 
tress and other safety communications and you 
may use your radiotelephone only for transmissions 
which are of a type authorized by the FCC. Be¬ 
cause others are waiting to use the frequency, all 
transmissions except those involving distress or 
safety should be as brief as possible. 

Communications between vessels, or between 
vessels and the Coast Guard, are usually initiated 
on 2182 kHz or Channel 16. The initial call is 
answered on this frequency and except for com¬ 
munications with Coast Guard stations, both sta¬ 
tions then shift to an appropriate intership or 
working frequency. Before transmitting on any fre¬ 
quency, you should listen on that frequency for 


204 



12-2 Coast Guard 

Communication 

Station 


a while to be certain that others are not using the 
frequency, or that no distress or safety traffic is in 
progress. All Maritime Mobile Stations must give 
their call sign at the beginning and end of each 
communication with another station and at the 
beginning and end of any transmission made for 
any other purpose. 

The Present Situation 

The system of itself works beautifully. Un¬ 
fortunately, human beings are involved and here 
is where the problem lies. Boatmen (and even the 
radio operators of large vessels) do not always 
listen on the assigned frequencies. Long-winded 
conversations clutter up the airwaves. Boatmen with 
powerful radios and weak minds often interrupt 
distress traffic and may drown it out completely. 
As a result the safety feature, which was the prin¬ 
cipal purpose for the establishment of the system, 
has been degraded by disorder and confusion to 
the point where a vessel in distress may be unable 
to get help because of the clutter on the frequencies. 
The serious and disastrous consequences of ir¬ 
responsible and undisciplined use of the system 


are clearly illustrated by the PELICAN incident, 
which occurred off Montauk Point, New York. . . . 

The following is from a statement by the captain 
of one of the assisting craft concerning his part in 
the rescue operations. “While coming around Mon¬ 
tauk Point in a NE gale we saw a fishing boat 
turn over in the rips off Montauk Point. We were 
three-fourths to one mile offshore of this boat— 
immediately started to go to her assistance and 
called for help on our radio. I had a 35 watt set 
in good condition on this boat, and got some sur¬ 
prise when I found I could not get a message through 
on account of a pleasure boat inviting company 
aboard to celebrate that they were out of the blow, 
and a commercial boat thinking that he better for¬ 
get fishing on account of the wind. All this took 
at least fifteen minutes, until the SUNBEAM, a 
Niantic fishing boat, picked up the message and 
with his more powerful radio set finally cleared 
the air and I was able to direct the rescue boats 
to the position of the accident. The pleasure boat 
refused to get off the air and the commercial boat 
talked too long about nothing at all. The result of 
the accident was 37 dead, 19 saved.” 


205 






What the Future Looks Like 

In order to alleviate some of the problems noted 
above, all short range marine radiotelephone 
communications are being shifted from the 2-3 
MHz-AM band to the VHF-FM (156-174 MHz) 
band. As stated before, this band has 38 communi¬ 
cation and 2 weather channels. Longer range 
communications (other than high seas radio) will 
remain on the 2-3 MHz band, employing single 
sideband emissions. Single sideband is a more 
efficient form of communication than conven¬ 
tional AM double sideband. By eliminating the 
second sideband of the transmitted signal and 
removing the carrier, all of the rf output power 
can be concentrated in one sideband for more 
effective communications. Single sideband provides 
greater range, eliminates detrimental fading and, 
because of the narrower bandwidth, improves the 
signal-to-noise ratio. Under adverse conditions SSB 
communications can be as much as eight times as 
effective as conventional AM double sideband. 

Starting January 1, 1972, 2-3 MHz AM double 
sideband sets will not be licensed, but ship stations 
licensed prior to that date may continue to use 
them until January 1, 1977. After this only 
VHF-FM will be permitted for short range com¬ 
munication. Those boats needing longer range 
communications may install a 2-3 MHz SSB set if a 
VHF-FM set is also installed and used for short 
range contacts. 

The Citizens Radio Service 

The past several years have seen an increased 
tendency on the part of owners of small craft to 
equip their vessels with radios which operate on 
the “Citizens Band” (26.965-27.255 MHz-AM). 
This is the Class D Citizens Radio Service, which is 
available to the general public; the only restriction 
being that its licenses are available to American 
citizens only. This band is crowded with over 
700,000 licensees having approximately 3,000,000 
radios. This crowded condition is further com¬ 
plicated by the growing tendency of Citizens Band 
licensees to imitate the hobbying activities of the 
Amateur Radio Service. 

The Citizens Radio Service was established to 
provide a service for both business and personal use 
where other means of communication were not 
available. 


The Citizen’s Radio Service has several serious 
disadvantages compared to the maritime mobile 
frequencies (2-3 MHz and 156-174 MHz): 

1. There is no distress or calling frequency. 

2. The Coast Guard is not equipped with 
Citizen’s Band radios and therefore cannot 
hear a call for help. 

3. No broadcasts are made of emergency 
weather or marine information. 

4. No vessels are required to install or monitor 
Citizen’s Band Radios. 

The Coast Guard in no way supports or encour¬ 
ages use of the Citizen’s Band for marine safety 
purposes. 

Operating Procedures (Non Emergency) 

Even though the principal reason for having a 
radiotelephone aboard is to assure safety, boatmen 
may have occasions when they might wish to send 
a message which is not of an emergency nature. 
Radiotelephone operating procedures are not diffi¬ 
cult to learn. A few simple rules must be followed 
to assure orderly message traffic over the air. 

How to Make a Call 

The first thing to remember when you are about 
to make a call on your radiotelephone is that you 
will be talking on a gigantic “party line.” Good 
manners include not interrupting others who may 
already be using the channel, except in an 
emergency. 

Let’s assume you wish to make a call on your 
VHF-FM radio to the cabin cruiser MORA-KAI. 
Your boat’s name is the GROVER TWO and your 
call sign is WM4154. 

1. Turn on your set and listen to channel 16 
for a few minutes. If you hear others 
talking, wait until they are through. 

2. When the channel is clear, depress the “push 
to talk” button on the microphone, hold 
the mike a few inches from your mouth and 
say in a normal tone: 

THE MORA KAI, THE MORA KAI, 
THIS IS THE GROVER TWO, WHIS¬ 
KEY MIKE FOUR ONE FIVE FOUR, 
OVER. 


206 



12-3 Hand Set with "Push-To-Talk" Switch 


3. Release the “push to talk” button and listen 
for MORA KAI’s reply, if MORA KAI does 
not reply, you may repeat the above call 
three times at intervals of two minutes each. 
If there is no reply after the third call, 
calling shall cease and shall not be renewed 
until after an interval of 15 minutes. Each 
attempted call shall not exceed 30 seconds 
in length. 

4. If MORA KAI does reply, he will say: 

GROVER TWO, THIS IS THE MORA 
KAI, WHISKEY ZULU YANKEE ONE 
ONE FOUR THREE SHIFT, CHAN¬ 
NEL SIX EIGHT, OVER. 

MORA KAI has replied and requested that 
you shift to a working frequency. There are 
other working frequencies in different 
geographic areas and MORA KAI could 
have suggested any available working 
frequency. 

5. You reply: 

THIS IS THE GROVER TWO-WILCO 
(Will Comply), OVER 

6. Both vessels now shift to Channel 68. 
Before transmitting on this working fre¬ 
quency, wait until others who may be using 
the frequency are through. You now trans¬ 
mit your message. If you wish a reply from 


MORA KAI you would use the proword 
OVER at the conclusion of your message. 
OVER means that you expect a reply and 
will remain on the frequency to receive it. 

7. On the conclusion of your complete message 
exchange with MORA KAI (which shall 
not exceed 3 minutes after making the initial 
eontaet), you say; 

THIS IS THE GROVER TWO WHIS¬ 
KEY MIKE FOUR ONE FIVE FOUR, 
OUT. 

The proword OUT means that this is the 
end of your transmission and a reply is not 
expeeted. Do not say OVER AND OUT 
as this is eontradietory terminology. Either 
you expect a reply or you don’t. If no reply 
is expeeted or required, use the proword 
OUT. 

8. Shift the channel selector back to Channel 
16 and resume your listening safety watch 
on this frequency. 

9. If your set is 2-3 MHz AM transmitter, the 
initial call would be made on 2182 MHz, 
and you would both shift to an agreed 
working frequency on that band. The voice 
procedures would be similar to those des¬ 
cribed above. 

10. After your conversation with MORA KAI 
is complete you shall not establish contact 
with this same vessel again until at least 
10 minutes have elapsed. 

11. Note how individual letters are not spoken 
as such but special words are used for each 
letter. This is to prevent misunderstanding 
between many letters whieh sound alike. 

An International Phonetic Alphabet using 
designated words for each letter has been 
developed. This alphabet is shown on the 
inside back cover. While some of the words 
may seem strange to us, remember that this 
alphabet was selected for use by operators 
speaking other languages as well as English. 
This alphabet should be memorized and a 
copy posted near your operating position. 


207 




Calls are initiated generally on a calling fre¬ 
quency and shifted to a working frequency. How¬ 
ever, many boatmen have developed the practice 
of arranging in ad\'ance with one another to make 
calls at certain scheduled times. These scheduled 
calls may be initiated on a working frequency since 
it is known that the other vessel will be listening 
on that frequency at that scheduled time. This 
procedure lessens congestion on the calling 
frequencies. 

Calls to shore stations (such as the telephone 
company) should be made on that station’s work¬ 
ing frequency. Telephone company channels are 
usually divided into two frequencies — the vessel 
transmits on one frequency and the shore station 
transmits on another frequency. On your boat you 
will hear the shore station only. When another 
vessel is communicating with the shore station, you 
will hear a signal on that frequency similar to the 
“busy” signal on your home phone. This signal is 
transmitted by the shore station when they are 
receiving traffic and it indicates that “the line is 
busy.” On the other hand some coast stations 
transmit back over the coast frequency the trans¬ 
mission picked up from the ship. Thus both sides 
of the conversation can be heard, letting you know 
that the channel is busy. In any event wait until 
the frequency is clear before calling the shore 
station. 

How To Receive a Call 

You can receive a call on your radiotelephone 
only if your receiver is turned on and tuned to the 
frequency on which the sending station is trans¬ 
mitting. The voice procedures described under 
“HOW TO MAKE A CALL” apply to receiving 
calls as well as transmitting them. Many boatmen 
keep an extra radio receiver aboard (a portable 
radio does very nicely) on which they monitor an 
additional channel, such as a telephone company 
transmitting frequency, if they expect a call from 
their home or office. 

“Two channel monitoring” (keeping a listening 
watch on two channels at the same time) requires 
a bit of getting used to. At first it may seem con¬ 
fusing but soon you will become proficient at it. 
Coast Guard vessels and stations, as well as Coast 
Guard Auxiliary vessels on patrol under orders. 


normally guard at least two channels at once and 
more in most cases. It’s a good way to keep your 
radio watch and at the same time listen for calls 
on another frequency. 

Maintain Your Listening Watch 

While any radiotelephone is turned on, keep its 
receiver tuned to the applicable distress frequency, 
2182 kHz or 156.8 MHz (Channel 16), and listen 
so that you may hear any call for assistance. 
Maintain your distress guard. Remember, others 
are doing the same thing and will hear you if YOU 
ever need help. Although your watch on the 
distress frequencies will be interrupted while you 
are engaged in activities such as making ship-to 
shore calls and copying marine information broad¬ 
casts, someone else will still be listening, and the 
sooner you return to your listening watch on the 
distress frequencies the larger the listening au¬ 
dience will be. 

Also, other stations attempting to call you will 
almost invariably call you on one of the calling and 
safety frequencies. If you maintain an efficient 
listening watch, you will not miss any important 
messages directed to you. 

Test Transmissions 

It is a violation of FCC Rules for anyone except 
an FCC licensed technician to call the Coast Guard 
for a “radio check.” This rule was established to 
restore a degree of efficiency to the calling and 
safety frequencies. If you wish to determine 
whether or not your transmission is “getting out,” 
the easiest way is to call another vessel on a 
working frequency. 

Another method is to make a test transmission. 
A test transmission is not directed to another sta¬ 
tion so you must be eareful that it will not appear 
to be a eall to another vessel or station. This, is 
done by using a number count or other phraseology 
whieh will not eonfuse listeners. The test is accom¬ 
plished by observing a light or rf meter on your 
set. When you talk into the mierophone the light 
will appear to brighten, or the indieator on the 
meter will defleet. Some boatmen use a small field- 
strength meter whieh ean be installed in any eon- 
venient loeation on the boat. 


208 


Regardless of the method used to visually 
observe the effect of your transmissions, the test 
should be conducted along standardized lines. 
Before testing, as before all transmissions for any 
purpose, listen for a few minutes on the frequency. 
It’s legal to test on any channel but it’s best to 
leave the calling and safety channel clear and do 
your testing on a working frequency. Assuming 
you have decided to test on Channel 68, place the 
transmitter on the air and say: 

THIS IS THE GROVER TWO—WHISKEY 
MIKE FOUR ONE FIVE FOUR—TEST. 

Then listen for a moment before continuing. 
If no other station tells you to “wait,” proceed with 
your test as follows: 

TESTING, ONE TWO THREE FOUR 
FIVE-THIS IS THE GROVER TWO WHIS¬ 
KEY MIKE FOUR ONE FIVE FOUR- 
SIXTEEN MILES DUE WEST OF OCEAN- 
SIDE, CALIFORNIA-OUT. 

While talking into the microphone, observe your 
visual indicator, whether it be a light or a meter. 
If the light brightens with your spoken word or 
the indieator on the meter defleets appreeiably, you 
will know as mueh about your radio transmissions 
as you will ever know. Also, be sure to inelude your 
general loeation at the eonelusion of your test trans¬ 
mission. 


Getting Your Weather 

Have you ever been caught offshore in a sudden 
blow and had to run for the nearest safe port? As 
your boat slammed into the waves have you ever 
wished that you could predict the weather to keep 
from being out like this? The National Weather 
Service would like to be of some help to you and 
you can take advantage of their services free. The 
Weather Service is constantly updating their short 
and long range forecasts and the Coast Guard 
broadcasts this information at regularly scheduled 
times every day. Generally, a preliminary an¬ 
nouncement will be made on 2182 kHz on the 2-3 
MHz band and on Channel 16 (156.8 MHz) on the 
156-174 MHz band. This announcement will direct 
you to shift to the frequency on which the weather 
report will be transmitted. 



12-4 Thunderstorm 


The National Weather Service in many areas 
broadeasts continuous weather information from 
their offices over their own radio stations. This 
is done on one of the VHF-FM weather channels, 
either 162.55 or 162.40 MHz. These broadeasts 
eover marine as well as land based weather needs 
and are up dated ever}^ few hours or so. On some 
of these stations speeial safety warnings from the 
U. S. Coast Guard are also ineluded. 

In some areas the phone eompany broadeasts 
weather at seheduled times, and this serviee is also 
offered by some eommereial broadeasting stations. 
So—sinee the weather is so easy to get—why do 
without it? Get your weather at every opportunity, 
espeeially in localities where storms come up 
quiekly. Your reputation as a skilled boatman will 
be enhaneed immeasurably as you demonstrate your 
ability, not only to bring your passengers baek 
alive, but also to bring them baek eomfortably and 
dry! 

Safety, Urgency and Distress Messages 

The marine radiotelephone safety and eommuni- 
eations system ineludes provisions for the trans¬ 
mission of messages whieh involve marine safety. 
These messages are preeeded by distinctive calls, 
which are either SECURITY, PAN or MAYDAY. 

The Safety Signal 

The safety signal consists of the spoken word 
SECURITY (pronounced SAY-CUR-I-TAY), re- 


209 





peated three times before the name and the call 
sign of the calling station or vessel. It indicates that 
the calling station is about to send a message 
concerning safety of navigation or is about to send 
a message concerning weather. The initial call is 
transmitted on Channel 16 or on frequency 2182 
kHz and, whenever practical, the message is sent on 
a working (ship-to-ship) frequency. An example of 
a safety message follows: 

On 2182 kHz 

“SECURITY, SECURITY, SECURITY-THIS 
IS THE GROVER TWO WHISKEY MIKE 
FOUR ONE FIVE FOUR SHIFT TWO SIX 
THREE EIGHT (or other working frequency) 
KILOHERTZ FOR SAFETY MESSAGE- 
THIS IS THE GROVER TWO WHISKEY 
MIKE FOUR ONE FIVE FOUR-OUT.” 

On 2638 kHz 

“SECURITY, SECURITY, SECURITY-THIS 
IS THE GROVER TWO WHISKEY MIKE 
FOUR ONE FIVE FOUR-A FLOATING 
DRILL MINE HAS BEEN LOCATED 
FLOATING AT POSITION LATITUDE 
THIRTY THREE DEGREES FORTY ONE 
MINUTES NORTH-LONGITUDE ONE 
HUNDRED EIGHTEEN DEGREES TEN 
MINUTES WEST-THIS IS THE GROVER 
TWO WHISKEY MIKE FOUR ONE FIVE 
FOUR-OUT.” 


The Urgency Signal 

The urgency signal consists of the spoken word 
PAN (pronounced Pawn, to rhyme with Lawn), 
repeated three times before the call sign and name 
of the calling station or vessel. It indicates that the 
calling station is about to transmit a message con¬ 
cerning the safety of a vessel or person. This call 
should be transmitted on frequency 2182 kHz. An 
example of an urgency message follows: 

PAN, PAN, PAN-THIS IS THE GROVER 
TWO WHISKEY MIKE FOUR ONE FIVE 
FOUR-POSITION TWO MILES OFF-ON 
BEARING ONE SIX FIVE DEGREES TO 
WEST END-CATALINA ISLAND-HAVE 
RUN OUT OF FUEL-AM DRIFTING TO¬ 


WARD SHORE AND REQUIRE A TOW- 
THREE PERSONS ON BOARD-GROVER 
TWO IS A TWENTY SIX FOOT CABIN 
CRUISER-WHITE HULL-BLUE TRIM- 
REGISTRATION CHARLIE FOXTROT 
HGHT ZERO FIVE NINER ALPHA 
WHISKEY-THIS IS THE GROVER TWO 
WHISKEY MIKE FOUR ONE FIVE FOUR- 
OVER. 

The Distress Signal 

As stated before, the principal reason for having 
an expensive radiotelephone on board is to assure 
your safety. In an emergeney you may send a dis¬ 
tress message on either of the ealling and safety 
frequencies, or any other frequeney for that matter. 
The voiee-eall for a distress is the spoken word 
MAYDAY repeated three times. It should be men¬ 
tioned here that a MAYDAY should not be sent 
unless you are in ‘"grave and imminent danger” and 
immediate help is required. Unfortunately, there 
are all too many MAYDAY calls from boats out of 
fuel and riding eomfortably at anehor. Admittedly, 
running out of fuel can be a frightening experienee, 
espeeially the first time (and some boatmen seem 
to do so with regularity) but by no streteh of the 
imagination eould this be considered a situation in 
whieh you are in ‘grave and imminent danger.” 

For less serious situations, sueh as the one de- 
seribed above, a simple eall for assistance, explain¬ 
ing your predicament, would do the job very nicely 
—and achieve the same result without the need 
to put a MAYDAY on the air. 

How to Make up and Transmit a Distress Call 

Basically, the distress call consists of three dis¬ 
tinct parts: The voice call MAYDAY repeated 
three times; the words THIS IS said once; and the 
name and call sign of the vessel in distress repeated 
three times. 

The distress message consists of ten parts: 

1. The voice call MAYDAY. 

2. The name and call sign of the vessel in 

distress. 

3. The position of the vessel in distress. 

4. The nature of the distress. 


210 


5. The assistance required. 

6. The present seaworthiness of the vessel in 

distress. 

7. The number of persons aboard and the 

condition of any injured. 

8. The description of the vessel-length, 

type, color of hull, color of trim and 
registration numbers. 

9. Your radio listening frequency and 

schedule. 

10. Qose with your vessel’s name and call 
sign. 

It is important to send the information in the 
order listed above, especially items #1, 2 and 3 of 
the message. If your radio is in danger of being 
drowned out, the first three items will identify you 
and tell others where you are. Then, if your power 
should fail before the message is completed, you 
will still stand an excellent chance of being located. 

Let’s assume you are aboard the GROVER II 
and the boat has slammed into a floating object 
causing the hull to spring a leak. Water is rising in 
the bilge and you cannot find the leak. It’s time to 
get help, so you place your transmitter on the air 
on Channel 16 or 2182 MHz and prepare to read 
your distress message over the air. It’s an excellent 
idea to write out your message and read it. In this 
manner you stand less chance of leaving things out 
of your message when it goes out over the air. If 
you leave pertinent information out of your 
message, the radio operator will be forced to ask 
for it, thus wasting valuable time. 

MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY-THIS IS 
THE GROVER TWO-WHISKEY MIKE 
FOUR ONE FIVE FOUR, THE GROVER 
TWO-WHISKEY MIKE FOUR ONE FIVE 
FOUR, THE GROVER TWO-WHISKEY 
MIKE FOUR ONE FIVE FOUR, POSITION 
APPROXIMATELY SIX MILES OFF-ON 
BEARING ZERO ONE ZERO DEGREES 
TRUE-TO DANA POINT-STRUCK 
FLOATING OBJECT-TAKING WATER- 
REQUEST COAST GUARD ASSISTANCE- 
ESTIMATE CAN REMAIN AFLOAT 
TWENTY FIVE MINUTES-TWO PERSONS 
ON BOARD- GROVER TWO IS A TWENTY 
SIX FOOT CABIN CRUISER-WHITE 
HULL-BLUE TRIM-REGISTRATION 
CHARLIE FOX-TROT EIGHT ZERO FIVE 


NINER ALPHA WHISKEY-THIS IS THE 
GROVER TWO WHISKEY MIKE FOUR 
ONE FIVE FOUR-OVER. 


If the Coast Guard radio operator does call you 
back and ask for more information, do not become 
impatient. His job is to get complete information 
on your case and send it on to Rescue Coordina¬ 
tion Center. It’s RCC’s job to evaluate all available 
information. In many cases assistance is offered by 
nearby private, commercial, or municipally-owned 
vessels. Assistance of this nature has saved many 
lives, and is utilized whenever feasible. Sometimes 
this voluntary assistance will be limited to standing 
by until professional help arrives, but it’s reassuring 
to have another vessel standing off a few hundred 
feet in the circumstances. RCC could dispatch a 
regular Coast Guard air or surface unit, or a Coast 
Guard Auxiliary vessel. In any case, RCC cannot 
help you until they have all of the information 
necessary to evaluate the situation. Hence the need 
for complete information in your first call for help. 

How to receive a Distress Call 

When a MAYDAY is heard, all stations are re¬ 
quired to listen on the frequency. If you are certain 
that the vessel in distress is in your immediate 
vicinity, you should acknowledge receipt of the 
message immediately. If you are not certain where 
the distressed vessel is, it’s best to wait a minute 
or so to allow the message to be acknowledged by 
vessels which may be nearer to the scene. In areas 
of heavy boating activity, where a Coast Guard 
Radio Station is nearby, it’s good practice to delay 
acknowledgment of the distress call for a minute 
or so to allow time for the local Coast Guard sta¬ 
tion to reply. An acknowledgment of a distress 
message would be made as follows: 

1. The name and call sign of the distressed 

vessel—three times. 

2. The words THIS IS. 

3. The name and call sign of your vessel- 

three times. 

4. The words RECEIVED MAYDAY. 

Let’s assume once again that you are aboard the 
cabin cruiser GROVER-H, WM 4154. You have 
copied a MAYDAY from the cabin cruiser CHRIS- 
LYNN, WZU 3748. You would place your trans- 


211 


mitter on the air on the same frequency over which 
the call was received, and say: 

THE CHRIS LYNN WHISKEY ZULU UNI¬ 
FORM THREE SEVEN FOUR EIGHT-THE 
CHRIS LYNN-WHISKEY ZULU UNIFORM 
THREE SEVEN FOUR EIGHT-THE CHRIS 
LYNN-WHISKEY ZULU UNIFORM 
THREE SEVEN FOUR EIGHT-THIS IS 
THE GROVER TWO WHISKEY MIKE 
FOUR ONE FIVE FOUR-THE GROVER 
TWO-WHISKEY MIKE FOUR ONE FIVE 
FOUR-THE GROVER TWO-WHISKEY 
MIKE FOUR ONE FIVE FOUR-RECEIVED 
MAYDAY. 

Allow a short interval for stations which might 
be nearer to the distressed vessel to acknowledge. 
Then transmit your amplifying message. This 
should consist of: 

1. The word MAYDAY. 

2. The name and call sign of the distressed 

vessel. 

3. The words THIS IS. 

4. The name and call sign of your vessel. 

5. Your position. 

6. Your speed of approach and your estimated 

time of arrival on scene. 

TTie amplifying message would be as follows: 

MAYDAY-THE CHRIS LYNN WHISKEY 
ZULU UNIFORM THREE SEVEN FOUR 
HGHT-THIS IS THE GROVER TWO WHIS¬ 
KEY MIKE FOUR ONE FIVE FOUR-WE 
ARE FOUR MILES OFF-ON BEARING 
ZERO THREE FIVE DEGREES TRUE TO 
SAN VICENTE LIGHT-NINE MILES FROM 
YOUR POSITION-OUR SPEED IS FOUR¬ 
TEEN KNOTS-SHOULD ARRIVE ALONG¬ 
SIDE IN THIRTY NINE MINUTES-THIS IS 
THE GROVER TWO WHISKEY MIKE 
FOUR ONE FIVE FOUR-OVER. 

General Rules for Distress Messages 

The first thing to remember is that a distress 
call may be sent legally only under conditions of 
grave and imminent danger. Many boatmen have 
used the international distress call to precede 
routine messages for assistance not involving im¬ 
minent danger, and have been surprised when they 
were cited later by the FCC. 


When your life is at stake, keep in mind that 
you will stand a far better chance of getting help 
if you follow correct message procedures. How¬ 
ever, you may legally use any means at your dis¬ 
posal to get assistance. 

Initiate your original call on Channel 16 or on 
frequency 2182 kHz. If you do not receive a reply 
after several calls, shift to another frequency. 

Don’t get excited on the air. Remember, it’s best 
to write your message first, then read it over the 
air. Speak slowly and distinctly, and spell out any 
names that might be unfamiliar to others. 

If you are asked for a short count, count to five 
and back slowly and distinctly. If asked for a long 
count, count to ten and back. The reason for a 
count is to allow another station to get a radio 
bearing on your vessel and thus determine your 
approximate position. 

If you have a double side band AM transmitter 
or VHF-FM transmitter and are forced to leave the 
vessel^ before help has sighted you, _ lock the 
transmitter on the air by tying down the “talk” 
button on the microphone before abandoning ship. 
Your carrier will be useful in helping search vessels 
locate you. 

This procedure will not work on a single side 
band transmitter since there is no carrier wave. 

If you hear a distress message and are unable to 
assist, listen to the message and copy all pertinent 
details since you miglit be requested to relay the 
message if it is not being received satisfactorily by 
a Coast Guard radio station or by other vessels near 
the scene. 

Don’t interfere with distress traffic in progress. 
It’s unlawful to interfere willingly with any radio 
communication, especially distress traffic. Also, 
don’t transmit meaningless offers of assistance. If 
you are not able to assist-STAY OFF THE AIR! 

Principal FCC Regulations Governing Voluntarily- 
Installed Radiotelephone Stations 

For the benefit of the beginner-boatman, the 
prineipal rules and regulations which apply to 
voluntarily-equipped vessels are paraphrased here. 
The student is cautioned, however, that the mari¬ 
time radio service is changing constantly. Because 
this is so, the rules under which it operates must 


212 


be modified as eonditions ehange. You are advised 
to eompare the eontinuing aecuraey of the ma¬ 
terial eontained herein against a current edition of 
the complete regulations. These are contained in 
Part 83 of the FCC’s Rules and Regulations 
Volume IV. 

Much of the information already discussed is 
necessarily repeated in this section. It will act as a 
good review. Every student should read the regula¬ 
tions carefully. Failure to know them or to ob¬ 
serve them could be costly in terms of human life 
in the event of an emergency. 

Station License 

A radio station may not be operated except under 
and in accordance with a valid station authorization 
issued by the Federal Communications Commis¬ 
sion. A station license may be granted, except to an 
alien, on submission of a properly completed formal 
application. 

The station license is required to be conspicuously 
posted at the principal operating location on board 
the vessel. Only FCC type accepted equipment 
described in the Commission’s Radio Equipment 
List is authorized to be used. 

Appropriate application forms may be obtained 
from any of the FCC field offices listed in Appendix 
1. Your nearest FCC field office will advise you 
whether the transmitter you propose to use is 
acceptable for licensing in the Maritime Mobile 
Service, if you furnish the manufacturer’s name and 
the model or type number of the transmitter. 

Application for a regular-term (usually 5 years) 
ship radiotelephone station license must be made on 
FCC Form 502 for the radiotelephone frequencies 
in the bands 1.6-4 MHz (MF), 4-23 MHz (HF), and 
156-158 MHz(VHF). Your application must be(l) 
accurate and complete (2) accompanied by the 
appropriate fee, and (3) signed. Except when an 
Interim Station License is desired, as explained in 
the following paragraph, send your station license 
application direct to the Federal Communications 
Commission, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania 17325. 

Frequently, the applicant wishes to obtain 
necessary authority to use his ship radiotelephone 
station while awaiting action by the Commission on 
his formal application. To meet this need, the 


applicant may immediately obtain an Interim Ship 
Station License by appearing in person at his 
nearest FCC Field Office and filing an acceptable 
formal application (FCC Form 502) with an infor¬ 
mal request for an Interim Station License. This 
license, valid for 6 months from the issuance date, 
permits the applicant to operate his ship 
radiotelephone station while awaiting receipt of a 
full-term station license. An Interim Station License 
will not be renewed, unless otherwise directed by the 
Commission in exceptional circumstances. 

Application for renewal of the full-term station 
license (FCC Form 405-B) should be made within 90 
days but not later than 30 days before its expiration 
date. When the licensee has made timely application 
for renewal of license, the existing license shall 
continue in effect until the licensee is otherwise 
notified by the FCC. A ship station licensee 
operating his station by virtue of the foregoing 
automatic provisions after the expiration date 
specified in the license shall post with the expired 
station license, either a signed copy of the renewal 
application or a statement certifying that the 
licensee has mailed or filed a renewal application 
and showing the date of mailing or filing. 

If you permanently discontinue operation of the 
ship station described in the station license issued to 
you, as, for example, if you sell your boat, you are 
required to promptly return the station license to the 
Secretary, FCC, Washington, D.C. 20554. In the 
event the license is not available for this purpose, 
send a telegram or letter to the Secretary stating the 
reason why the license is not available and re¬ 
questing that the license be canceled. Otherwise, 
since the license is in your name, any violations 
committed in the operation of the station after it has 
left your control may be your responsibility. 

Operator License 

Except for safety communications, only a person 
holding the proper class of valid operator license or 
permit issued by the Commission is authorized to 
actually operate a radiotelephone station on board a 
boat of U.S. registry. The licensed operator, if 
authorized by the station licensee or an agent 
thereof, may permit any person to speak into the 
station microphone, provided he insures operation 
of the station is in compliance with governing law 
and regulations. 


213 


For operation of the usual radiotelephone ship 
station, only a Restricted Radiotelephone Operator 
Permit is required. This permit may be obtained by 
U.S. citizens and nationals without examination, 
but the applicant must be able to declare on the 
application form (FCC Form 753-A) that he is 
familiar with the applicable FCC rules. Submit the 
properly completed application and appropriate fee 
to the FCC, Gettysburg, Pennsylvania 17325. 

All adjustments or tests of the radiotelephone 
transmitter during or coincident with the installa¬ 
tion, servicing, or maintenance of such apparatus 
which may affect the proper operation of the station 
must be performed by or under the immediate 
supervision and responsibility of a person holding a 
First-Class or Second-Class Commercial Radio 
Operator License (either radiotelephone or 
radiotelegraph), who shall be responsible for the 
proper functioning of the station equipment. 

The Restricted Radiotelephone Operator Permit 
must be either posted in a conspicuous place at the 
principal location on board ship at which the station 
is operated (i.e., with the station license) or kept on 
the operator’s person. All other classes of radio 
operator licenses must be posted with the station 
license while the licensee is employed or designated 
as radio operator of the station. 

Distress and Calling Frequencies 

For ship radiotelephone stations operating in the 
MF band, the distress and calling frequency is 2182 
kHz. All stations operating in this band must 
maintain an efficient listening watch on 2182 kHz at 
all times while their station receiver is on and is not 
being used for communication on another frequen¬ 
cy. 

For ship radiotelephone stations operating in the 
VHF band, the distress, calling, and safety frequen¬ 
cy is 156.8 MHz (Channel 16). An efficient listening 
watch is required on this frequency at all times while 
the station receiver is on and is not being used for 
communication on another frequency. 

Use of Distress Frequency and 
Calling Frequencies 

The operational use of 2182 kHz and 156.8 MHz 
(Channel 16) is restricted to: 

(i) Distress signal MAYDAY, followed by 
distress message; 


(ii) Urgency signal PAN, followed by a very 

urgent message directly concerning safety; 

(iii) Safety signal SECURITY, followed by a 

brief message concerning the safety of 
navigation or important meteorological 
warning; 

(iv) Call to a particular station, and reply to a 

call; 

(v) Brief radio operating signals (such as agree¬ 

ing on the channel to be used forexchang¬ 
ing message traffic). 

Calling a particular station shall not continue for 
a period of more than 30 seconds in each instance. If 
you do not hear the called station reply, do not call 
that station again until after an interval of 2 
minutes. When a station called does not reply to a 
call sent three times at intervals of 2 minutes, cease 
calling and do not renew calling until after an 
interval of 15 minutes. These limitations do not 
apply in the event of an emergency involving safety. 

Except when other operating procedure is used to 
expedite safety communication, ship stations, 
before transmitting on an intership working fre¬ 
quency, shall first establish communication with 
each other by call and reply on 2182 kHz or 156.8 
MHz (Channel 16). However, when the calling 
station knows that the called station is maintaining 
a simultaneous listening watch on 2182 kHz or 156.8 
MHz (Channel 16) and on an authorized intership 
working frequency, it may initiate calls on such 
working frequency. 

After establishing communication with another 
station by call and reply on 2182 kHz or 156.8 MHz 
(Channel 16), ship stations shall change to an 
authorized intership working frequency for the 
exchange of messages. 

Ship-To-Ship Working Frequencies 
in the MF and VHF Bands 

The following frequencies are currently assigned 
for intership “working” primarily for safety com¬ 
munication and secondarily for operational and 
certain business purposes in the MF band: 

(1) 2003 kHz, for use exclusively in the Great 
Lakes area; 

(ii) 2082.5 kHz, all areas (single sideband only); 


214 


(iii) 2142 kHz, Pacific Coast area south of 

latitude 42° N., on a day only basis; 

(iv) 2203 kHz, Gulf of Mexico (single sideband 

only); 

(v) 2638 kHz, for use in all areas; 

(vi) 2738 kHz, for use in all areas except the 

Great Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico; 

(vii) 2830 kHz, for use in Gulf of Mexico. 

The following frequencies are currently assigned 
for use in all areas by noncommercial vessels in the 
VHP 156-162 MHz band: 

(i) 156.3 MHz (Channel 6) for intership safety 

(this frequency is mandatory); 

(ii) 156.8 MHz (Channel 16) for Distress, Safe¬ 

ty, and Calling (this frequency is man¬ 
datory); 

(iii) 156.425 MHz (Channel 68) for intership 

and ship-to-coast use (subject to the con¬ 
ditions of use in Section 2.7 of this 
chapter); 

(iv) 156.525 and 156.625 M Hz (Channels 70 and 

72) for intership use only (subject to the 
conditions of use in Section 7 of this 
chapter); 

(v) 156.450 M Hz (Channel 9) for intership and 

ship-to-coast use (shared with commercial 
vessels). 

Other intership and ship-to-coast channels are 
available for limited purposes such as Port 
Operations. 

Use of Ship-To-Ship Working Frequencies 
in the MF and the VHF Bands 

Use of the intership “working” frequencies in the 
MF band (see Section 2.5 of this chapter) is 
authorized solely for communications pertaining to 
safety, operational, and ship business purposes. 
Permissible use is further limited according to the 
class of vessel, as explained hereunder. 

The PRIMARY use of these intership frequencies 
by all ship radiotelephone stations is for safety 
communication defined as follows; 

Safety communication: The transmission or 

reception of distress, alarm, urgency, or safety 


signals, or any communication preceded by one 
of these signals, or any form of radio com¬ 
munication which, if delayed in transmission or 
reception, may adversely affect the safety of life 
or property. 

On a SECONDARY basis, on condition that 
interference is not caused to safety communication, 
these intership frequencies may be used: 

(i) By commercial boats and by commercial 
transport vessels of municipal or State 
governments, for OPERATIONAL COM¬ 
MUNICATION, that is, for radio communication 
concerning the navigation, movement, or manage¬ 
ment of a ship or ships. These terms are defined as 
follows; 

NAVIGATION: Includes the piloting of a vessel. 
MOVEMENT: Includes information and neces¬ 
sary communication relative to when and 
where the boat or ship will move or be moved 
as, for example, rendezvous at a port, 6asin, or 
marina, or for maneuvers during a cruise. 
MANAGEMENT: Includes the obtaining of 
necessary supplies for the ship, limited to 
immediate needs, and the scheduling of repairs 
or modifications to the ship, limited to com¬ 
munication with those directly involved in the 
repairs or modifications or concerned with 
changes in the movement of the ship because of 
those repairs or modifications. 

Noncommercial intership frequencies in the VHF 
band (see Section 2.5 of this chapter) are subject to 
the following conditions of use; 

(i) 156.425 MHz (Channel 68), available to 

fulfill the wide scope of needs of non¬ 
commercial boats in cases where the 
number of channels available is limited 
(this frequency, however, may not be used 
in lieu of frequencies allotted for Distress, 
Safety, and Calling, Intership Safety, 
Navigational, Port Operations, or Public 
Correspondence). 

(ii) 156.525; 156.625 MHz (Channels 70 and 

72), available on an interim basis, for 
noncommercial intership communica¬ 
tions during localized fleet operations, 
maneuvers during a cruise, and rendez¬ 
vous. 


215 


Time Limitation for Communications on the 
Ship-To-Ship Working Frequencies in the 
MF Band 

Any one exchange of communication between 
any two ship stations on an intership working 
frequency (see Section 2.5 of this chapter) shall not 
exceed 3 minutes in duration after the two stations 
have established contact by calling and answering. 

Subsequent to such exchange of communications 
on the intership working frequencies in the MF 
band, these frequencies shall not be used again for 
communication between the same two stations until 
10 minutes have elapsed. 

The foregoing time limitations are not applicable 
in the event of an emergency involving safety. 

All transmissions on an intership working fre¬ 
quency between two or more stations, engaged in 
any one exchange of signals or communications 
with each other, shall take place on only one 
frequency (i.e., the stations involved shall transmit 
and receive on the same frequency). This require¬ 
ment, however, is waived in the event of an 
emergency whenever interference or limitation of 
equipment prevent use of this method of single¬ 
frequency communication. 

When you cannot use VHF and must use MF, 
remember that you share the MF radiotelephone 
frequencies with approximately 150,000 other U.S. 
ship stations. In addition, some of these frequencies 
are shared with foreign ship radiotelephone 
stations. It is obvious that unless each one of the 
army of users of these “party lines” exercises 
restraint and intelligence, the circuits can easily be 
reduced to an intolerable confusion and made 
useless for their legitimate purposes. Because of the 
propagation characteristics of these frequencies, 
your transmissions may seriously interfere with 
other stations thousahds of miles away, even though 
you are not able to contact or are not plainly heard 
by another relatively close station with which you 
wish to communicate. The only solution, other than 
transferring your operations to the VHF band, is to 
(1) use your transmitter only when necessary and 
only for authorized types of communication, (2) use 
the lowest power required for the particular contact, 
(3) keep your transmissions short, (4) announce 
your call sign clearly, and (5) habitually treat other 
users with courtesy. 


Test Transmission Procedure 

Transmission of the radiotelephone alarm signal 
for testing purposes is not authorized. Other 
transmissions made for testing purposes must be 
kept to a minimum but are authorized when 
necessary and when properly conducted. 

Always make sure by careful listening that the 
proposed test emissions will not cause interference. 
All test transmissions must be preceded by announ¬ 
cing the station call sign followed by the word TEST 
as a preliminary warning. If as a result of such 
announcement, any station transmits by voice the 
word WAIT suspend testing. 

After an appropriate interval of time, you may 
repeat the test announcement; if there is no response 
and careful listening indicates that harmful in¬ 
terference would not be created, the test may 
proceed as follows: 

Announce the word TESTING, and follow with a 
count “1, 2, 3, 4, etc.,” or test phrases or sentences 
that do not conflict with normal operating signals. 
The test signals shall not last longer than 10 seconds. 
At the conclusion of the test, make a voice an¬ 
nouncement of the official call sign of the testing 
station. Do not repeat this transmission on 2182 
kHz or 156.8 MHz (Channel 16) until at least 5 
minutes have elapsed; on other authorized frequen¬ 
cies, do 'not repeat until at least 1 minute has 
elapsed. 

Station Identification 

All transmissions shall be identified by a voice 
announcement in the English language of the 
station’s call sign. This identification shall be made: 

(a) At the beginning and the end of each 

communication with any other station; 

(b) At the beginning and the end of each 

transmission for any other purpose; and 

(c) At intervals not exceeding 15 minutes 

whenever transmission is sustained for a 

period exceeding 15 minutes. 

When an official call sign has not be allocated to a 
station, as for example, when a station is operating 
under an Interim Station License, the complete 
name of the boat on which the station is located and 
the name of the licensee must be announced in lieu 
of a call sign at the times specified above. 


216 


Ship Radiotelephone Station Documents 

Vessels voluntarily equipped with ship radio¬ 
telephone stations shall be provided with the 
following documents: 

(i) A valid station license; 

(ii) The necessary operator license or licenses; 

(iii) The radio station log; 

(iv) Part 83 of the Commission’s Rules (may be 

kept ashore). 

Radiotelephone Station Log 

A radio log is required; each page must be (1) 
numbered; (2) bear the name of the vessel and call 
sign; and (3) be signed by the operator. Make entries 
showing the time each watch begins and ends. 
Record as completely as possible all distress and 
alarm signals, all related communications 
transmitted or intercepted, and all urgency and 
safety signals and related communications 
transmitted. A record of all installations, service, or 
maintenance work performed that may affect the 
proper operation of the station must also be entered 
by the licensed operator doing the work, including 
his address and the class, serial number, and 
expiration date of his license. 

The 24-hour system is used in a radio log; that is, 
8:45 a.m. is written as 0845 and 1:00 p.m. as 1300. 
Local time is normally used, but Eastern Standard 
Time (EST) must be used throughout the Great 
Lakes. Vessels on international voyages use 
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) exclusively. 
Whichever time is used, the appropriate abbrevia¬ 
tion must be entered at the head of the time column. 

Radio logs must be retained for at least a year, for 
3 years if they contain entries concerning distress or 
disaster, and for longer periods if they concern 
communications being investigated by the FCC or 
against which claims or complaints have been filed. 

Vessels that are subject to the provisions of (1) 
Title III, Parts II or III of the Communications Act: 
(2) the Great Lakes Agreement; or (3) the radio 
provisions of the Safety Convention must log 
additional entries (see 83.368(b), (c), and (d)). 

Station logs shall be made available for inspec¬ 
tion at the request of an FCC representative, who 
may remove them from the licensee’s possession, or 
on request the licensee shall mail them to the FCC 
by either registered or certified mail, return receipt 
requested. 


Adjustments 

The station licensee shall be responsible for the 
proper technical operation of his equipment. All 
transmitter adjustments or tests during or coinci¬ 
dent with the installation, servicing, or maintenance 
of the station that may affect its proper operation 
shall be made by or under the immediate supervi¬ 
sion and responsibility of a person holding a first- 
class or second-class operator license, who shall be 
responsible for the proper functioning of the station 
equipment on completion of his work. 

Radio Ground Connection 

Effective operation of the usual antenna of ship 
radiotelephone stations operating in the MF band 
depends on an adequate radio ground connection. 
A satisfactory radio ground may be obtained by 
making a clean and tight connection to the hull of 
metallic-hulled vessels, with as short a lead as 
possible for the transmitter ground terminal and 
using heavy copper wire, strip, braid, or tubing. If 
the vessel has a nonmetallic hull, it may be necessary 
to provide a ground connection to a bare plate or 
strips of corrosion-resistant metal of at least 12 
square feet in aggregate area fixed to the hull below 
the waterline, if connecting to the engine, plumbing, 
etc., does not suffice. 

Secrecy of Communications 

Section 605 of the Communications Act of 1934, 
as amended, prohibits the divulgence of interstate or 
foreign communications transmitted, received, or 
intercepted by wire or radio to anyone other than 
the addressee or his agent or attorney, or to persons 
necessarily involved in the handling of the com¬ 
munications, unless the sender authorizes the 
divulgence of the contents thereof. Persons in¬ 
tercepting such communications or becoming ac¬ 
quainted therewith are also prohibited from divulg¬ 
ing the contents or using the contents for the benefit 
of themselves or others. 

Obviously, this requirement of secrecy does not 
apply to radio communications relating to ships in 
distress, nor to radio communications transmitted 
by amateurs or broadcast by others for the use of the 
general public. It does apply, however, to all other 
communications. These statutory secrecy provi¬ 
sions cover messages addressed to a specific ship 
station or coast station, or to a person via such 
station. 


217 


Obsenity, Indecency, and Profanity 

When two or more ship stations are com¬ 
municating with each other, they are talking over an 
extensive party line. Users should always bear this 
fact in mind and assume that many persons are 
listening. These listeners include women and 
children, many of whom regularly monitor the 
channels in order to hear their husbands or fathers 
on board vessels at sea. All users therefore have a 
compelling moral obligation to avoid offensive 
remarks. They also have a strict legal obligation, 
inasmuch as Section 1464 of the U.S. Criminal Code 
makes it a criminal offense for any person to 
transmit communications containing obscene, inde¬ 
cent, or profane words, language, or meaning. 
Whoever utters any obscene, indecent, or profane 
language by means of radio communication shall be 
fined not more than $10,000 or imprisioned not 
more than 2 years, or both. 

Revocation of Station License 

A station license may be revoked for: 

(i) Willful or repeated violation of or willful or 

repeated failure to observe, any provision 
of the Communications Act or any rule or 
regulation of the Commission authorized 
by a treaty ratified by the United States; 

(ii) Willful or repeated failure to operate sub¬ 

stantially as set forth in the license; 

(iii) Violation of or failure to observe any cease 

and desist order issued by the Commis¬ 
sion; 

(iv) False statements knowingly made either in 

the application for license or in any 
statement of fact which may be required 
pursuant to such application; 

(v) Conditions coming to the attention of the 

Commission which would warrant it in 
refusing to grant a license on an original 
application. 

Suspension of Radio Operator License 

An operator license or permit may be suspended 
on proof sufficient to satisfy the Commission that 
the operator has— 

(i) Violated any provision of any act, treaty, or 
convention binding on the United States, 
which the Commission is authorized to 


administer, or any regulation made by the 
Commission under any such act, treaty, or 
convention; or 

(ii) Transmitted superfluous radio com¬ 

munications or signals or com¬ 
munications containing profane or 
obscene words, language, or meaning; or 

(iii) Knowingly transmitted false or deceptive 

signals or communications, on a call sign 
or letter which has not been assigned by 
proper authority to the station he is 
operating; or 

(iv) Maliciously or willfully interfered with any 

other radio communications or signals; or 

(v) Willfully damaged or permitted radio ap¬ 

paratus or installations to be damaged; or 

(vi) Failed to carry out a lawful order of the 

master or person lawfully in charge of the 
ship on which he is employed; or 

(vii) Obtained or attempted to obtain, or assisted 

another to obtain or attempt to.obtain, an 
operator’s license by fraudulent means. 

Monetary Forfeitures (Fines) 

In addition to or in lieu of any of the penalties 
already stated, both the licensee and the person 
operating the station, if he is not the same person, 
may be fined for the following offenses: 

(i) Operation of a radio station without iden¬ 

tifying such station at the times and in the 
manner prescribed. 

(ii) Transmission of a false call sign or a false 

distress call or message. 

(iii) Transmission of unauthorized com¬ 

munications on any frequency designated 
as a distress frequency or a calling fre¬ 
quency. 

(iv) Operation of a radio station so as to 

interfere with any distress call or distress 
communication. 

The licensee only may be fined for the following 
offenses: 

(v) Operation of a radio station by any person 

not holding a valid radio operator license 
or permit of the class prescribed. 


218 


(vi) Operation of a radio station on a frequency 

not authorized by the FCC for use by such 
station, including operation with a fre¬ 
quency deviation beyond tolerances. 

(vii) Failure to attenuate spurious emissions of a 

radio station to the extent required. 

(viii) Operation of a radio station with power in 
excess of that authorized. 

(ix) Use of radio station to transmit unauthoriz¬ 

ed communications, including those un¬ 
authorized for the particular station ser¬ 
vice. 

(x) Operation of a radio station with a type of 

emission not authorized. 

(xi) Operation of a radio station with transmit¬ 

ting equipment not authorized. 

(xii) Failure to respond to a written official 

communication from the FCC. 

These fines are imposed for willful or repeated 
violations of the types enumerated above. The 
second offense for the same violation is sufficient to 
constitute a repeated violation. A fine can be as 
much as $100 for each separate offense. There are 
certain maximum amounts for multiple offenses 
within 90 days prior to the date of notice of apparent 
liability (i.e., $500 for the licensee and $400 for the 
operator if he is a different person from the 
licensee). 

The FCC completes its legal responsibility for 
notifying you of these forfeitures when it mails 
notice to the last address of record. The burden is on 
the licensee to keep the FCC informed of his latest 
address. This is important if he wishes to take 
advantage of any defense procedures provided 
subsequent to the notice of apparent liability for a 
forfeiture. 

The following has been reproduced from the 
Auxiliary Communications Text, Revised Edition, 
Aux. 24-70. 


Status of Citizens on Government 
Vessels 

I. DISCUSSION. The Coast Guard policy with 
regard to Citizens Radio Service operation from 
Coast Guard units is based on the following 
considerations: 


(a) The Citizens Radio Service was established 
with the intent of providing a service for both 
business and personal uses where other means of 
communication were not available. C-B com¬ 
munication between a government station and non¬ 
government station is specifically prohibited except 
for Civil Defense activities, or in cases involving the 
immediate safety of life or property. The FCC 
expressly states that hobby type communications 
are not permitted. The general intent is that the 
great majority of communications taking place in 
this service should be between radio sets belonging 
to and licensed under one licensee. An example of 
the aforementioned would be a doctor with citizens 
band equipment installed in both his home and car. 

(b) The Class D band of the Citizens Radio 
Service is crowded with over 700,000 licensees, and 
is further complicated by the growing trend of these 
licenses to imitate the Amateurs. The FCC is taking 
steps to curtail hobbying activities. I 

(c) The Citizens Radio Service has become quite 
popular with the pleasure boat owner. It would be 
highly probable, were a Citizens Radio Service 
installation permitted aboard a Coast Guard sta¬ 
tion, that Coast Guard personnel would be called by 
and communicate with boatmen about weather 
conditions, state of the sea, entrance or bar con¬ 
ditions, etc. Such communications would be in 
violation of the spirit of the clause denying non¬ 
government to government use of this service. 
Further, the Citizens Radio Service has the follow¬ 
ing limitations when compared with 2182 and 156.8: 

(1) No distress or calling frequency. 

(2) No watch requirements. 

(3) No restriction on type of stations in the 

service. 

(4) No interference protection. 

(5) Operators are not required to be licensed. 

(6) No emergency broadcasts. 

(7) Short range. 

Considering the above, it is imperative that the 
general public be in no way led to believe that the 
Coast Guard supports Citizens Band for safety 
purposes. 


219 


2. POLICY. Inasmuch as Citizens Radio Ser¬ 
vice operation is not permitted from the Coast 
Guard units, facilities of the Coast Guard Auxiliary 
will not operate on the Citizens Radio Service band 
when under official Coast Guard orders, except as 
noted in paragraph 1 (a) above. 

Summary of Radiotelephone Operating 
Practice 

1. A licensed radio operator should remember 
that the statfon he desires to operate must be 
licensed by the Federal Communications Commis¬ 
sion. In order to prevent interference and to give 
others an opportunity to use the airways he should 
avoid unnecessary calls and communications by 
radio. He should remember that radio signals 
normally travel outward from the transmitting 
station in many directions and can be intercepted by 
unauthorized persons. 

(a) Before making a radio call the operator 
should listen on the communications channel to 
insure that interference will not be caused to 
communications which may be already in progress. 
At all times in radio communications the operator 
should be courteous. 

(b) Station identification should be made clearly 
and distinctly so that unnecessary repetition of call 
letters is avoided and to enable other stations to 
clearly identify all calls. 

(c) An operator normally exhibits his authority 
to operate a station by posting a valid operator 
license or permit at the transmitter control point. 

(d) While a radio transmitter is in a public place 
it should at all times be either attended by or 
supervised by a licensed operator or the transmitter 
should be made inaccessible to unauthorized per¬ 
sons. 

(e) A radio transmitter should not be on the air 
except when signals are being transmitted. The 
operator of a radiotelephone station should not 
press the push-to-talk button except when he 
intends to speak into the microphone. Radiation 
from a transmitter may cause interference even 
when voice is not transmitted. 

(f) When radio communications at a station are 
unreliable or disrupted due to static or fading, it is 
not a good practice for the operator to continuously 
call other stations in attempting to make contact 


because his calls may cause interference to other 
stations that are not experiencing static or fading. 

2. A radiotelephone operator should make an 
effort to train his voice for most effective radiocom¬ 
munication. His voice should be loud enough to be 
distinctly heard by the receiving operator and it 
should not be too loud since it may become 
distorted and difficult to understand at the receiving 
station. He should articulate his words and avoid 
speaking in a monotone as much as possible. The 
working distance range of the transmitter is affected 
to some extent by the loudness of the speaker’s 
voice; if the voice is too low, the maximum distance 
range of the transmitter cannot be attained and if 
the voice is too loud the distance range may be 
reduced to zero due to the signals becoming 
distorted beyond intelligibility. In noisy locations 
the operator sometimes cups his hands over the 
microphone to exclude extraneous noise. Normally, 
the microphone is held from 2 to 6 inches from the 
operator’s lips. 

3. Often in radiotelephone communications a 
“phonetic alphabet” or word list is useful in 
identifying letters or words that may sound like 
other letters or words of different meaning. For 
example “group” may sound like “scoop,” or 
“bridge” may sound like “ridge.” A phonetic 
alphabet or word list consists of a list of 26 words 
each word beginning with a different letter for 
identifying that particular letter. If the letters in 
“Group” are represented in a phonetic alphabet by 
Golf, Romeo, Oscar, Uniform and Papa, the word 
“Group” is transmitted as “Group, G as in Golf, R as 
in Romeo, O as in Oscar, U as in Uniform, P as in 
Papa.” (See back cover for this alphabet.) 

4. PRO-WORDS. It is important in 
radiotelephone communications that operators use 
familiar and well known words and phrases in order 
to insure accuracy and save time from undue 
repetition of words. Some of the standard 
procedure words and phrases commonly used are; 

Pro-word Meaning 

Roger I have received all of your last 

transmission satisfactorily. 

Wilco Your Iasi message received, 

understood, and will be com¬ 
plied with. 


220 


Out or Clear 

This conversation is ended 
and no response is expected. 

Over 

My transmission is ended and 

1 expect a response from you. 

Speak Slower 

Your transmission is at too 
fast a speed, speak more 
slowly. 

Say Again 

Repeat. 

Words Twice 

Communication is difficult — 
give every phrase twice. 

Figures 

Numerals or numbers follow. 

Message Follows 

A message that requires re¬ 
cording is about to follow. 

This is 

This message is coming from. 

Wait 

I must pause for a few 
seconds. 

Silence 

Stay off the air - an emer¬ 
gency message is being trans¬ 
mitted. 


5. PROCEDURE. In making a call by radio; 
first, the call sign or preferably, the name of the 
called station is given, but no more than 3 times if 
transmitting conditions are poor; and then followed 
by the name and call letters of the calling station (3 
times if required). 


(a) In testing a radiotelephone transmitter the 
operator should clearly indicate that he is testing, 
and the station call sign or name of the station, as 
required by the rules, should be clearly given. Tests 
should be as brief as possible. 

(b) If a radio station is used only for occasional 
calls, it is a good practice to test the station 
regularly. Regular tests may reveal defects or faults 
which, if corrected immediately may prevent delays 
when communications are necessary. Caution 
should be observed by persons testing a station to 
make certain their test message will not interfere 
with other communications in progress on the same 
channel. 

(c) Technical repairs or adjustments to 
radiotelephone communication stations are made 
only by or under the immediate supervision and 
responsibility of operators holding first or second- 
class licenses. 

(d) When a licensed operator in charge of a 
radiotelephone station permits another person to 
use the microphone and talk over the facilities of the 
station he should remember that he continues to 
bear responsibility for the proper operation of the 
station. 


221 


CHAPTER 13 


Locks and Dams 


River Boating 

Some of the finest boating this country offers can 
be found on the inland waterways of inter¬ 
connected rivers and lakes. Throughout the United 
States there are nearly 30,000 miles of inland 
waterways. The Mississippi River system alone 
covers more than 12,000 miles. Rivers as a rule 
seldom offer large open expanses, but they do 
require unique piloting skills. On the river local 
knowledge often outweighs many of the fundamen¬ 
tal piloting skills. Changing conditions on the rivers 
put a premium on local knowledge and raise river 
navigation to an art. Piloting the riverways can be 
both exciting and iateresting. Although the rivers 
hold no dark secrets, they do have peculiarities 
which are unique and offer new challenges to the 
coastal and lake boater. 


While the coastal boater keeps close watch on the 
tides and water depth, the river boater watches 
overhead clearance, buoys, channels, dikes, wing- 
dams, and low water dams in back channels. Except 
for flooding conditions which occur following a 
heavy rain, the only fluctuation in river level is 
seasonal. In some of the navigable streams, sudden 
rains may raise the level several feet in a very few 
hours. 

In the spring, freshets flood down from the 
headwaters carrying much debris in the strong 
currents resulting in dangerous conditions. Boaters 
should use extreme caution, especially in the upper 
reaches of the river and during periods of reduced 
visibility. Although dams can hold slight rises in 



13-1 River Roads 


223 


water levels, extreme high water levels must be 
released from upper pools. At St. Louis, the 
fluctuation in river level from flood conditions in 
the early spring to normal levels in the late summer 
and fall may be from 35 to 40 feet. 

Silt and flocculation are responsible for many 
river problems. Flocculation is a jellied mass of 
muck which is deposited on the river bed to a depth 
of several feet. Larger craft can plow through it 
without much problem and smaller craft are not 
seriously affected by it. However both silt and 
flocculation have clogged water strainers and have 
worn out strut bearings and shafts. Currents, 
especially during the spring, stir up this silt and 
additional silt is washed into the river from the 
banks. It is then carried in suspension by the current 
until deposited, building up a sand bar or mud bank. 
This occurs on the inside of bends or where the 
current is slowed, as at a river mouth or at an 
entrance to a wide lake or bay. 

Indeed, currents are the greatest concern to the 
river boater. And, until he becomes acquainted with 
them, they can be both surprising and frustrating. 
Surface currents, for instance, which affect small 
craft may run opposite those which pull at large, 
deep keeled craft. Currents can also change at the 
junction of rivers, at bends, or where a river widens 
or narrows. Currents also differ at different points 
between banks. The friction between water and the 
river bed tends to slow the current velocity. Hence, 
you can expect a faster current in the channel, which 
usually tends toward the outside of bends. A boater 
who runs downstream in the faster current and 
upstream in the slower current at the edge of 
channels can expect to save both time and fuel by 
letting the current work for him and not fighting it. 
A boater proceeding upstream along the edge of a 
channel should be extra cautious and observe his 
wake closely. A wake will become sharply peaked or 
broken as it enters shallow water or contacts an 


under water obstruction, such as a “wing dam”. 
After some experience, the boater will be able to 
read the surface and get a fair estimate of the 
conditions below. 

Commercial Tows 

Most of the inland waterways handle a great deal 
of commercial traffic. Recreational boaters should 
give commercial tows a wide berth. It is wise to give 
such traffic as wide a berth as safety, with respect to 
channel widths, permits. 

Large barges lashed together in one enormous 
tow may cover many acres. The pleasure boater 
should appreciate the problems of handling such 
enormous floats and never jeopardize their ac¬ 
tivities, regardless of any considerations of right of 
way. Integrated tows generally are made up of a 
bowpiece, a group of square ended barges, and a 
towboat at the stern lashed together in one unit. 
These tows can be 1,000 feet or more in length. In a 
narrow channel a big tow or tanker requires the 
better part of the channel. 

As a commercial tow approaches, you will see a 
sizeable bow wave built up, running almost the level 
of her, and the water drawn away by suction to 
lower the water level at both sides. The wake put out 
by a commercial tow creates a powerful turbulence 
extending several hundreds of feet astern of the tow. 

Particularly, stay away from the front of tows 
underway. If you were to stall in such a spot, it may 
be impossible for the tow to stop or steer clear. 

With the weight a commercial tow carries, it may 
travel half a mile or more before it can come to a full 
stop. In addition, there is a “blind spot” ahead of the 
tow that extends for a considerable distance. A good 
rule of thumb to use is to always keep the pilot house 
in view. 


A TOWBOAT operator's VISION IS BLOCKED AHEAD FOR SEVERAL HUNDRED FEET... STAY CLEAR 



224 
















The swinging effect of a tow must be taken into 
account at bends in the channel, so it is generally 
wise to pass on the inside of the bends. Most of the 
“towing” is accomplished by pushing scows and 
barges ahead of the tug. This will keep the tow under 
better control as a single unit. Tugs with tows astern 
present a real problem to approaching small craft, 
due to additional swinging. 

Special caution is required when running lighted 
on the rivers at night. At night, to an observer in a 
small boat, the towboat’s lights may be more 
conspicious than those on the tow far out ahead. 
Lights on the shore add to the difficulty because of 
the reflections on the water. When the tows are 
using powerful searchlights their blinding beams 
make it impossible to see anything at all. 

Locks and Dams 

Belore the development of our present-day 
system of locks and dams, some rivers were not 
much more than rapids, with rushing water and 
many dangerous obstacles. When dams were built at 
caretully planned locations along the rivers the 
water filled behind them, creating a series of pools. 
Since rivers flow “down hill”, each downstream 
pool was somewhat lower in elevation than the 
preceding one. These dams, of themselves, could 
have effectively controlled the river but would just 
as effectively have blocked all river navigation. 
Consequently, a system of locks was devised to 
allow vessels to pass from one pool to another. The 
term “pool stage” indicates the height of water in a 
pool with reference to the datum for that pool. Pool 
stages are posted on bulletin boards along the river 
so as to be easily read from a passing vessel. 
Locations of the bulletin boards and the normal 
pool gauges are given on the river charts. A normal 
pool reading on the gauge indicates a minimum 
channel depth of 9 feet will be available through the 
area. 

The locks and dams were constructed to provide a 
navigable channel for river traffic. The impounded 
water in the pool above the dams is released as 
necessary to maintain a navigable channel of 
sufficient depth to insure uninterrupted movement 
of river traffic during the navigation season. These 
locks and dams present a safety problem equally 
shared by the owners of small boats, the commercial 
barge lines, the Coast Guard and the U.S. Army 


Corps of Engineers whose function it is to build, 
maintain and operate them. A knowledge of these 
locks and dams, their types and locations, how to 
approach, enter and leave them, and a realization of 
the hazards that are incident to their navigation is 
essential if the boatman is to use them with 
confidence and safety. 

Construction and Operation of Dams 

The average individual’s conception of a dam is a 
solid wall of concrete or earth extending from bank 
to bank across a stream, with a spillway or overflow 
section to permit excess impounded waters to 
escape downstream. The navigation dams on the 
Mississippi, Illinois and Ohio rivers are quite 
different. On the Mississippi two types of gates are 
in common use, the Tainter gate and the Roller gate. 
Refer to the sketch showing a cross section of a 
typical dam tainter gate. You can see by the 
locations of the arrows the manner in which strong 
currents are created as the water passes through the 
gates of a dam. Should a boat get too close to the 
lower or down-stream side of a dam it would be 
drawn into the dam by the powerful surface current, 
which actually flows in an upstream direction, and 
smashed to bits against the steel gate. 



On the upper side of a dam of this type there is a 
strong suction created by the rush of water un¬ 
derneath. A boat drifting into the dam on the upper 
side would be in no danger of being drawn under the 
gate if its occupants would sit still and not become 
panicky and try to climb out on the gate or jump 
into the water. The latter course v/ould mean almost 


225 

















certain death. If the occupants would keep calm and 
make an effort to cushion the impact of hitting the 
dam by fending off the boat with a pike pole, 
boathook or fender, or all three if available, then “sit 
tight” until help arrives, their chances of survival are 
fairly good. If this situation should ever happen to 
you, the thing to remember is to do everything 
possible to keep the boat afloat, and stay with it as 
long as possible. 

Although tainter gates can be lowered so as to 
permit water to flow over them, they are normally 
operated in the partially open position so that the 
water flows underneath. This is done to permit the 
mud and silt to pass the dam with the water, thereby 
precluding the possibility of the river filling up with 
mud and blocking navigation. The logic in this type 
of construction can easily be understood by anyone 
who is familiar with the muddy Mississippi and 
Missouri rivers. 

Another type of dam, the Chanoine Wicket 
Navigable Pass Dam, is found on the Illinois, Ohio, 
and Ouachita rivers. It consists of a series of framed 
timber wickets individually supported so that each 
wicket can be raised and lowered separately. The 
wickets are made of oak, reinforced by steel and 
have a rubber seal attached to the downstream 
lower edge. They are 3'9" wide and spaced 4'0'' on 
centers with a three inch space between wickets. 
During times of low flow these spaces are filled with 
5" X 5" wooden timbers, called needles. At a point 
slightly below center, the wicket is hinge connected 
to a structural and forged steel frame called a horse, 
and a forged steel strut called a prop. The horse in 
turn is pivot connected to the concrete foundation 
of the dam through a series of steel castings called 
horse boxes. The lower end of the prop rests in an 
iron casting called a hurter, embedded in the 
concrete foundation of the dam. In the raised 
position, the lower end of the wicket rests against a 
steel sill casting bolted to the foundation of the dam, 
and the lower end of the prop is seated in an offset or 
“seat” in the hurter. The foundation of the dam is 
supported on steel and wood piling. 

A wicket is lowered by pulling it forward using a 
small derrickboat. The attached prop is guided in its 
forward movement by a warped surface on the side 
face of the hurter. This surface guides the lower end 
of the prop into a groove which by-passes the hurter 
seat. The wicket is then released, the prop slides 


freely back in the groove and the wicket falls flat on 
the sill. As the prop slides freely back in this groove 
an additional warped surface on that face of the 
hurter guides it back into an additional groove 
directly behind the hurter seat. In raising the wicket, 
the prop follows forward again as the wicket is 
raised, drops over the seat, and again rests against it 
as the lower end of the wicket is released and bears 
against the sill. 



13-4 Raising a Typical Wicket 


226 






















When a dam is being raised or lowered all passing 
craft must use the lock until signaled that the pass is 
clear. Vessels desiring to wait to use the pass must 
remain outside the lock area. 

When dams are up all vessels in the upper pools 
not intending to enter the lock are forbidden to 
approach nearer to the dams than a line extending 
across the river from the head of the upper guide 
wall unless authorized to do so by the lockmaster. 

On locks at all fixed dams, and at all movable 
dams when the dams are up so that there is no 
navigable pass through the dam, the following 
navigation lights will be displayed during hours of 
darkness: 


(1) Three green lights visible through an arc of 
360 degrees arranged in a vertical line on the 
upstream end of the river (guard) wall unless the 
intermediate wall extends farther upstream. In the 
later case, the lights will be placed on the upstream 
end of the intermediate wall. 


(2) Two green lights visible through an arc of 360 
degrees arranged in a vertical line on the 
downstream end of the river (guard) wall unless the 
intermediate wall extends farther downstream. In 
the later case, the lights will be placed on the 
downstream end of the intermediate wall. 


(3) A single red light visible through an arc of 360 
degrees on each end (upstream and downstream) of 
the land (guide) wall. 

If one or more beartraps or weirs are open or 
partially open, which may cause a “set” in current 
conditions at the upper approach to the locks, this 
fact will be indicated by displaying a circular disc 
five feet in diameter, on or near the light support on 
the upstream end of the land guide wall during 
hours of daylight, and will be indicated during hours 
of darkness by displaying a white light vertically 
under and five feet below the red light on the 
upstream end of the land (guide) wall. 

At movable dams when the dam has been lowered 
or partly lowered so that there is an unobstructed 


navigable pass through the dam the navigation 
lights indicated below will be displayed during 
hours of darkness until lock walls and weir piers are 
awash. 

(1) Three red lights visible through an arc of 360 
degrees arranged in a vertical line on the upstream 
end of the river (guard) wall. 

(2) Two red lights visible through an arc of 360 
degrees arranged in a vertical line on the 
downstream end of the river (guard) wall: 

(3) A single red light visible through an arc of 360 
degrees on each end (upstream and downstream) of 
the land (guide) wall. 

S tay clear of danger zones - 600 feet above and 100 
feet below dams. 

A pproach dams, at reduced speed, along the shore 
at the lock. 

F ora safe cruise obtain navigation charts from the 
U.S. Corps of Engineers. 

E very boat should carry approved PFD’s and a 
good anchor and line. 

T ake precautions to know your position with 
reference to each lock and dam. 

Y ou endanger your life, as well as that of others, 
when you disregard safety. 

Be “Dam” Conscious 

During the filling process, it is dangerous to 
approach near the intake ports in the lock walls 
above the upstream lock gates because of the 
powerful suction created by the water as it rushes 
into the culverts. Small boats must stay clear of the 
locks until signaled to enter. 

During the emptying process a strong under¬ 
current and suction is created in the lock chamber, 
adjacent to the lock walls, due to the water rushing 
into the filling and emptying ports at the bottom of 
the lock. Occupants of small boats should take care 
that they do not fall overboard in the lock, for it is 
very doubtful if anyone could survive a rushing trip 
through the lock culvert to the river below. 


227 



13-5 Standing in Boat is Dangerous 

The wearing of a personal flotation device would 
be no guarantee of safety under these circumstances. 


Operation of Locks 

While locks come in all shapes and sizes, they all 
operate on the same principle, that water tends to 


seek its own level. Basically, a lock is an enclosure 
with accomodations at both ends (generally called 
gates) to allow vessels to enter and exit the lock. By a 
system of culverts and valves, the water level in the 
lock can be made to align with the pool level of the 
upstream or downstream side of the lock. 

The accompanying sketches show a general plan 
of a typical lock and the vital parts of the filling and 
emptying system. These culverts are 10 feet to 12 feet 
in diameter, with the sections near the valves being 
square or rectangular in shape. 

When the upstream valves are opened and the 
downstream valves and all miter gates are closed, 
water will flow from the upper pool through the 
culverts into the lock chamber filling it to the level of 
the upper pool. The lock chamber may be emptied 
to the lower level by opening the downstream valves 
while keeping the upstream valves and all miter 
gates closed. The miter gates are operated only when 
the water level on either side is at the same elevation. 

The actual time required to fill or empty the lock 
depends upon the difference between the upper and 
lower pool. Under normal river conditions, the lock 
can be filled or emptied in 7 to 10 minutes. 



C. UPPER GATES OPEN D. LOWER GATES CLOSED 

▼ T 


INTAKES 


lir* 





A. FILLING VALVE OPEN 


B. DRAIN VALVE CLOSED 


13-6 Lock Open to Upper Pool 


A vessel traveling downstream will enter the lock when the water is at the upper pool level. 


228 

































The upstream gates are then closed and the water in the lock is allowed to escape through valves and 
culverts. When the water level in the lock is allowed to escape through valves and culverts. When the 
water level in the lock is the same as that of the lower pool, the water will cease to flow out of the lock. 



The downstream gates are then opened and the vessel leaves the lock to continue on its downstream 
voyage. 


229 

























































A vessel traveling upstream may then enter the 
lock. After the vessel is secured in the lock the 
downstream gates are closed and the water from the 
upper pool is allowed to enter the lock until the 
water level in the lock is the same as that of the upper 
pool. The upper stream gates are then opened and 
the vessel leaves the lock to continue its upstream 
voyage. Single vessels are sometimes locked, but 
more often many vessels of varying sizes are raised 
or lowered in a single lockage. 

Procedure for Lockage 

As you approach a lock, local regulations may 
require you to sound certain whistle signals in¬ 
dicating that you wish to be locked though. 
Regulations may prohibit you from approaching 
closer than several hundred feet from the lock while 
waiting. Additionally, you may be required to 
maintain your position close to the bank to allow 
exiting vessels to use the center of the channel as 
they come out of the lock. 

Since the signals used on locks may be lights, 
whistles, or other devices, we will attempt to briefly 
describe them. If you normally cruise on a certain 
section of a particular waterway, you should obtain 
a copy of the local regulations in force in your 
waters. Your course instructor will tell you which set 


of regulations apply and where you will be able to 
get them. These regulations contain, among other 
things, signals displayed and utilized by locks and 
also the proper signals you will be required to sound 
on your boat’s whistle. 

At locks where “small craft signals” are installed, 
the boat operator may signal the lockman that he 
desires passage. After signaling, the operator should 
stand clear with his boat and wait for instruction 
from the lockman. Many of the locks are radio 
equipped and can be signaled via radio. Consult 
your navigational charts for radio equipped locks, 
the operational frequency and call sign. 

Let us assume that you are coming downstream in 
a boat and desire to pass through a single lock, or 
landward lock, in case of double locks. When the 
boat arrives within one-half mile of the lock, you 
give the proper signal for lockage. The signals vary 
from one area to another; your course instructor 
will tell you what signals are used in your area. Do 
not approach closer than 400 to 600 feet of the upper 
extremity from the lock wall until you see*that the 
lock gates are open and the lockman signals you to 
enter. The signal will be from an air horn, or traffic 
signals, or both. One long blast of the air horn 
means “Enter landward lock”, two long blasts 


HOPE THEY 
HAVEN’T LOST 
THE KEY 



DIRECTLY 

FOR THE LOCK. 00 NOT 
APPROACH THE SPILLWAY 
SECTIONS OF THE DAM! 
CURRENTS MAY DRAW 
YOUR BOAT INTO OR 
UNDER THE DAM y 


13-9 Avoid “Danger” Area 


230 













13-10 Typical Lock Section 


means “Enter the riverward lock”. The traffic signal lights look like automobile traffic lights. A 
flashing red light means, “Stand Clear Do Not Enger”. A flashing amber means, “Approach Lock 
But Under Full Control”. A flashing green means, “Enter Lock”. 



STAND CLEAR 
DO NOT ENTER 


LOCK IS BEING 
MADE READY 


ENTER LOCK 


ENTER LOCK 
WITH CAUTION 


13-11 Traffic Signal Lights 


231 











(ONE LONG BLASTL^r 


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^.1. L::.c.,iti J.:.^ ■ - 




..i4 TO 6 SECONDS) 

^■'' - -="^ . 

■,.«:■* ■-'-'■'11 


lockM 1leave lock 

. ... -im-^. -^...>. — ..., ^^ ..a..^'m'„tirfj^.ti,., »iCl«i»..?..m.' »ir*i*Si*r*^^iMiaI—~.T>*wife-j« 


13-12 Air Horn Signals 


After receiving the signal to enter, proceed into 
the lock. Once inside the lock chamber the boat 
should proceed to the vicinity of the lockman on the 
lock wall and be prepared to pass or receive a 
mooring line. In some areas mooring lines are 
provided by the lockman and in other areas the 
mooring lines are provided by the boatman. These 
mooring lines should be sufficiently strong to serve 
as a bow line. They should be at least 50 feet long 
(longer if locking through some locks on the 
Tennessee Lakes system). 


They must reach from the top of the lock wall and 
have sufficient line to make fast to a ring or bitt on 
deck. The end of the line that is passed to the 
lockman should have a 12-inch eye-splice for 
dropping over the checkpost, the operator should 
always wear USCG approved personal flotation 
devices. Mooring lines should not be tied to the 
boat. They must be carefully tended at all times. 
Extra care must be exercised during a downbound 
lockage that the mooring lines are not fouled when 
the water level in the lock is being lowered. A fouled 



13-14 Close-up of Floating Mooring Bitt 


13-13 Proceed to Position of Lockman 


232 


















line may result in a boat hanging up on the line and 
could cause serious damage or even capsize the 
boat. Be prepared to cast off lines in an emergency. 
Use plenty of fenders to protect the hull from 
damage from rough or dirty lock walls. 

Some locks have mooring pins in the lock walls. 
Others have floating bitts which raise or lower with 
the water level. In either case the lockman will direct 
you. Never moor a boat to ladder rungs embedded 
in the lock walls. This might cause the boat to 
capsize when the water level is lowered. Do not 
stand up in an open boat or walk around on deck 
without wearing a PFD. Vessels are not permitted 
to drift around within the lock while the water level 
is being raised or lowered. All vessels must be 
moored. 

After all vessels are securely moored and the lock 
gates are closed, the lock is allowed to fill or empty. 
While being raised or lowered it will be necessary to 
take in or pay out line as the case may be. All vessels 
must remain in their assigned positions until the 
lock gates are opened and the lockman gives the 
signal to depart. The signal to depart will be given 
from the air horn, one short blast means, “Leave 
landward lock”, two short blasts means, “Leave 
riverward lock”. 



After the signal is given, boats shall depart from 
the lock in the same order as they entered, except 
when directed otherwise by the lockman. In the case 
of a small pleasure boat making a lockage 
simultaneously with a commercial tow, the small 
boat will usually be directed verbally to depart 
ahead of the tow. This is done as a precaution 
against accident or damage to the more fragile 
pleasure boat and can be accomplished without 
delay if properly executed. In no event should small 
craft attempt to depart from the lock before lock 
gates are fully recessed, as the wake can do serious 
damage to the gates. As the small boat leaves the 
lock, he should head for the channel, keeping a 
sharp lookout for craft approaching from the other 
direction. 

Certain priorities have been established by the 
Secretary of the Army (under authority of Section 7 
of the River and Harbor Act of August 8, 1917) for 
safe and efficient passage of various types of craft 
which use the inland waterways. The priorities thus 
established are as follows: 

1st - U. S. Military Craft 
2nd - Vessels Carrying U.S. Mail 
3rd - Commercial Passenger Craft 
4th - Commercial Tows 
5th - Commercial Fishermen 
6th - Pleasure Boats 



13-15 Lockman has Police Authority 

233 





Under certain coditions small craft (pleasure 
boats) may be locked through with other craft 
having a higher priority, but only when no delay is 
occasioned thereby and the safety of either craft is 
not jeopardized. 


The lockmen have been given the same authority 
over your boat in the lock as traffic policemen have 
over your car at intersections. For your safety you 
must obey their instructions. 


Every boat should have aboard a copy of the 
regulations governing navigation on the rivers in 
their area. Small boat operators should study and 
refer to these “Regulations” whenever in doubt as to 
the proper procedure in making a lockage. Your 
course instructor has prepared handouts for this 
purpose and you should study them closely. 

It’s only natural to have feelings of apprehension, 
but if you will put to practice what you have learned 
in this lesson, you will have unlimited pleasure in 
river boating. Have a safe and pleasant journey. 


234 







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Index 


237 




A 


Abaft, 18 
Abeam, 19 
Accident report, 69 
Accidents, I 
Advection fog, 196 
Aft, 18 
Ahead, 19 
Aids; 

chart symbols, 118-122 
buoys, 118-120 
lettering, 120-121 
lighthouse, 121 
lightships, 121-122 
ranges and daybeacons, 122 
distance-finding stations, 116 
distance of visibility at sea, 122-124 
atmospheric conditions, 122-123 
geographic range, 123-124 
luminous range, 123 
nominal range, 123 
fog signals, 113 

Intracoastal Waterway, 106-107 
Lateral Systems, 101-106 
Buoys, 102-106 
Light Lists, 124 
lighthouses, 112-113 
lightships, 114-115 
LORAN, 116 
marker radiobeacons, 116 
Notice to Mariners, 124 
Ocean Station vessels, 117 
publications, 124,136 
radiobeams, 115-116 
range lights, 113-114 

Uniform State Waterways Marking System, 
buoys, 111-112 

identification of markers and aids, 112 
regulatory markers, 110-111 
Western Rivers System, 107-110 
buoys, 108 
daymarks, 107-108 
emergency lights or sirens, 109 
lights, 107-108 
locks and dams, 109-110 
markers, safety harbor and safety 
108-109 

radar reflectors, 108 
Air masses, 195 

Air movement over earth, 190-192 
Air supply, 67 
Alarm systems, 147 
Aloft. 18 

Aluminum construction of boats, 22-23 

American Practical Navigator, 140 

Amidships, 19 

Anchor bend, 162 

Anchoring, 8-9, 42-46, 184 

Anchors, 14, 43-45 

Anemometer, 193 

Apparent wind, 174 

Arc of visibility, 73 

Arm-type protractor, 129 

Armed lead, 166 

Astern, 19 

Athwartships, 19 

Atmospheric conditions, 122-123 

Atmospheric stability, 193 


B 

Back splice, 164 
Backfire flame arresters, 68 
Barges, 224 
Barometer, 193 
Battens, 171 
Batteries, 146, 154 
Beams, 17, 18 
Bearings, 138 
Bear traps, 227 
Becket bend, 161 
Belaying a cleat, 164 
Bell, 69 
Below, 19 

Bends, knots, hitches, 160-164 
(see also Ropes) 

Bilge blowers, 147 
Bilges, 17 

Blasts, types defined, 72 

Boat Safety Act of 1971, 70 

Bolts, 154 

Boom, 18, 172 

Bottom, 17 

Bow, 17 

Bowline, 162-163 
Bowsprit, 18 
Breaker point, 153 
Broad on the bow, 19 
Broadcasts, weather, 5 
Bulkhead, 17 
Buoyant cushions, 65 
Buoyant vests, 65 

Buoys, 102-106, 108, 111-112, 118-120 
definition, 72 
duty, 80 


110-112 '' 

Call, receiving, 208 

Capacity plate, 2-3, 62 

Carbon dioxide, 61 

Carburetion air, 67 

Carburetor, 154 

Cement, 23 

Centerboard, 170 

Certification of Compliance, 62-63 

Chainplate, 183 

landing, chanoine Wicket Dam, 226-227 
Charts: 
bearings, 138 
channels, 132 

clearance under bridges, 132 
composition of bottom, 132 
depth of water, 132 
Gnomonic projection, 134 
Lambert Conformal, 134 
latitude and longitude, 135 
learning to read, 133-134 
locations of aids, 132 
major landmarks, 132 
measuring distance, 135-136 
Mercator projection, 134 
necessary for piloting, 129 
obtaining, 136 
ttl. 136 

outside home waters, 132 
plotting, 136-140 
“DR Position,” 137-138 
“estimated position,” 137 
“fix,” 137, 139 


“line of position” (LOP) 136-137, 139 
“running fix,” 137, 139, 140 
symbols, 136-137 
time, 136 

Polyconic projection, 134 
publications, 136 
symbols, 118-122 
time, 136 
Chine, 17 
Chock, 18 
Cleat, 18 
Clew, 171 
Close aboard, 19 
Closed-course race, 10 
Clouds, 192-193 
Clove hitch, 161-162 
Coast Pilots, 136 
Cockpit, 17 
Collisions, 5-6, 9 
Coming about, 177 
Commercial tows, 224 
Compass; 
construction, 126 
deviation, 127-128 
errors, 126-127 
fit the individual boat, 125 
handling errors, 128-129 
mounting, 125-126 
safety, 8 
sizes, 125 
using, 126 
variation, 127 

Concrete construction of boats, 23 
Condenser, 153 
Condition of boat, 15 
Construction of boats: 
aluminum, 22-23 
concrete, 23 
fiberglass, 22 
wooden, 21-22 

Cooling systems, 144-145, 154 
Course protractor, 129 
Courtesy Examination, 13, 70 
Cowls, positioning, 67 
Cruisers, 20 
Cruising, 8-9 
Currents, 224 
Cushion, 8 


D 

Dams, 109-110, 225 
Danger zone, definition, 72 
Daybeacons, 105, 106-108 
Daymarks, 105, 106-108 
Deck, 17 

Deviation error, 127-128 
Devices, 101-124 

(see also Aids) 

Dew point, defined, 196 
Diesel engines, 142-143, 154 
Dinghies, 19-20 
Dipping the Eye, 166-167 
Displacement hull, 20-21 
Distance-finding stations, 116 
Distinct blast, definition, 72 
Distress, sailboat, 187 

Distress signal radiotelephone, 210-212, 214 
Distress signals, sailboat, 187-188 
Dividers, 129 


239 


Oocking and maneuvering, 34-42 
(see also Handling boat) 

"DR Position,” 137-138 

Draft. 18 

Drive system, 155 

“Dry bulb" thermometer, 195 

Ducting materials and size, 67 

Dutton’s Navigation and Piloting, 140 

E 

Electric cords, 8 

Electrical system and accessories, 146 
Emergency procedures, 15, 187 
Endurance racing, 11 
Enforcement, law, 70 
Engaged in fishing, definition, 72 
Engines: 

cooling systems, 144-145, 154 
diesel engines, 142-143, 146 
electrical system and accessories, 146 
four cycle, 142 
fuel pump, 147 
fuel systems, 146 
fueling, 151-153 
ignition system, 153, 154 

inboard marine engine trouble shooting, 147-149 
introduction. 141 

lubrication systems, 144, 153, 154 
outboard marine engine trouble shooting, 149-151 
post season routine maintenance — 
inboards, 154-155 
outboards, 15, 153 
pre-season routine maintenance: 
in boards, 153-154 
outboards, 153 
routine check list, 146-147 
spare parts and tools, 151 
two cycle, 143 
“Estimated position,” 137 
ETA, determining, 131 
Exhaust. 67 
Explosions, 6, 14 
Extension cords, 8 
Eye splice, 165 

F 

Falls overboard, 5 
Fan belts, 146 
Fatalities, I 

Federal Boat Safety Act of 1971, 70 
Fenders, 18 
Ferro-cement, 23 
Fiber line, care, 159-160 
Fiberglass construction of boats, 22 
Fid, 18 

Figure eight, 163 
Filters, 147 

Final check, sailboat, 183 
Fire extinguishers, 58-61 
Fires. 6, 14 

Fisherman's bend, 162 
Fishing, 9-10 
Fittings, 17 
“Fix,” 137, 139 
Flag hoists, 4 
Flame arrestors, 154 
Flames, extinguish, 7 
Float plan, 13-14 
Foam, 61 
Fog, 196 


Fog signals, 113 
Foot of sail, 172 
Fore-and-aft, 19 
Fore sail, 18 

Forecasting, weather, 189, 195-196 

Four cycle engine, 142 

Frames, 17 

Freeboard, 18 

Freon, 61 

Fronts, 187 

Fuel, 8, 146, 151-153 

Fuel systems, 146, 153, 155 

Fueling, 6-7, 151-153 

Fumes, 7 

Fuses, 8, 153 

G 

Gale, 4 

Galley, 17 

Gear, safety, 2 

General Prudential Rule, 80 

Generator belts, 154 

Gnomonic projection, 134 

Gooseneck, 182 

Grease cups, 147 

Great Lakes, 72, 91-94 

Gudgeons, 182 

Gunwale, 17 

H 

Halyards, 18 
Handling boat: 
anchoring, 42-46 
docking and maneuvering, 34-42 
before getting underway, 34 
getting underway, 35, 36-37 
leaving the dock, 35 
lines, 35-36 
mooring, 38-39 
starting engines, 34 
turning in a narrow channel, 38 
wind and current, 35 
effects of propellers and rudders, 31-34 
low speed maneuvering, 32 
maneuvering at speed, 32 
heavy weather, 46-50 
running before sea, 49-50 
running into a sea, 48 
waves, 47 

impaired visibility, 50-52 
introduction, 29 
mooring to buoy, 42 
propeller, 29-31 
rudder, 31 

running narrow inlets, 52-53 
safety, 14 
Hatch, 17 
Hazards, 9 
Head, 17 
Head of sail, 171 
Heaving lines, 166 
Heavy weather, 186 
Heeling, 170 
Helm, 18 

Hitches, knots, bends, 160-164 
(see also Ropesj 
Horn, 69 

Hose nozzle, grounded, 7 
Houseboat, 20 
Hull, 17, 20-21 


Hull Identification Number, 62 
Humidity, relative, 192 
Hunting, 9-10 
Hurricane, 4 

Hydraulic drive transmission, 146 
Hygrometer, 193 


I 

Ignition system, 149, 153, 154 
Inboard marine engines, 24, 147-149, 153-154 
Inboard-outboard installation, 24 
Instruments: 
piloting, 129 
weather, 193-195 
Intake, 67 

Intoxication of operator, 15 
Intracoastal Waterway, 106-107, 136 
Isobars, 196 

J 

Jet drive, 24 
Jib, 18, 171, 172 
Jibing, 180, 181 

K 

Keel, 17, 170 

Knots, bends, hitches, 160-164 
{see also Ropes) 

L 

Ladder, 17 

Lambert Conformal, 134 
Landing, sailboat, 181 
Language, sailors', 17-27 
Lateral System, 101-106 
{see also Aids) 

Latitude, 135 
Law enforcement, 70 
Laws, safety, 14 
Lead line, 165 
Leeward, 17, 19 
Legal requirements: 
backfire flame arresters, 68 
boating accident reports, 69 
buoyant cushions, 65 
buoyant vests, 65 
by length of motorboat, 57-58 
cabin cruisers and larger boats, 67 
carbon dioxide or freon, 61 
carburetion air, 67 
Courtesy Examination, 70 
documenting of vessels, 56-57 
dry chemical, 61 
ducting materials, 67 
ducting size, 67 
exhaust, 67 

explosive vapors, 67-68 
fire extinguishers, 58-61 
foam, 61 

general precautions, 68 
intake (air supply), 67 
law enforcement, 70 
life preservers, 64 
lifesaving devices, 63-66 
lights, 58 

numbering of vessels, 55 
open boats, 66-67 


240 


personal flotation devices, 63-66 
positioning of cowls, 67 
responsibility of boatman, 69 
ring life buoys. 66 
sales and transfers, 56 
sales to aliens, 57 
small motorboats, 68 

special purpose water safety buoyant devices, 
technical details, 67-68 
ventilation arrangements, 68 
ventilation systems, 66 
Length, 18 
Lettering, 120-121 
Life preserver, 8, 64 
Life vest, 8, 65 
Light Lists, 124, 136 
Lighthouses. 112-113, 121 
Lights: 

anchor lights, 79 
at locks, 227 
emergency, 109 

International Rules of Road, 76-79 
Intracoastal Waterway, 106 
Motorboat Act, 72-73, 74-76 
numbering, 106-107 
placing, 107 
provisions vary, 58 
storm warnings, 4 
weather. 198 

Lightships, 114-115. 121-122 
Line. 8, 14, 17. 35-36, 157-168 
{see also Ropes) 

“Line of position," 136-137, 139 

Loading, improper, 2, 14 

“Local attraction,” 126 

Lock operation, 109, 227-230 

Locking through. 110. 230 

Locks and dams, 109, 223 

Logs, 130 

Longitude, 135 

Lookout, 15 

LOP, 136-137, 139 

LORAN. 116 

Lube oil system, 153-154 

Lubrication, 153-154 

Lubrication systems, 144, 153, 154 

Luff of sail. 172 

M 

Main sail, 18 
Mainsail, rigging, 182 
Maneuvering and docking, 34-42 
{see also Handling boat) 

Markers: 

identification, 112 
regulatory, 110-111 

safety harbor and safety landing. 108-109 
Marlinspike, 18 

Marlinspike, seamanship, 157-168 
{see also Ropes) 

Mast. 18. 172 
MAYDAY, 210-212, 214 
Mercator projection, 134, 135 
Metal surfaces, 153. 155 
Meteorology, 200 
Mizzen sail. 18 
Mooring boat, 6, 38-39, 42 
Mooring lines in locks, 110, 232 
Motorboats: 
crui.ser. 20, 67 
dinghies. 19-20 
houseboat, 20 


large. 67 
lengths, 57 
prams. 19 
runabouts, 20 
skiffs, 19 
small, 67 

utility outboards, 20 

66 


N 

Nautical Chan Symbols and Abhreviations-Chart #1, 
133, 136 

Notice to Mariners, 124, 136 
O 


Obstructions, 15 
Ocean Station vessels, 117 
"Officiar length, 57 
Oil. 146 

156-174 MHz. 202-204. 204 

"Open” boats, 66-67 

Open-course race. 10 

Openings, closed, 7 

Outboard engine, 19, 24, 149-151, 153 

Outlets, 8 

Overpowering, 2 


P 


PAN, 210, 214 
Parallel rules, 129 
Parts, engine, 151 
Pelorus. 138 

Pennants, weather, 197-198 
Personal Flotation 
Devices, 7-8, 14, 63-66 
Piloting and Dead Reckoning, 140 
Piloting instruments, 129 

Piloting, Seamanship and Small Boat Handling, 140 

Planning hull. 21 

Plotting. 136 

Point, definition, 72 

Points of sailing, 177 

Polyconic projection, 134, 135-136 

Pool stage, 225 

Port tack. 177 

Portholes, 17 

Portside, 17 

Power boats, 11 

Power vessel, definition, 72 

Prams, 19 

Predicted log race, 10 
Preserver, 8 

Priorities for locks. 109, 233 
Privileged vessel: 
definition, 72 
duty. 80 

Procedure for lockage, 109-110, 230 

Projections, 134 

Prolonged blast, definition, 72 

Propeller, 29-34 

Propulsion: 

inboard marine engines, 24 
inboard-outboard. 24 
jet drive. 24 
outboard engine, 24 
requirements, 23 
tunnel drive. 24 
Protractor, course, 129 
Prowords, 220-221 
Publications, 124 


K 

Racing. 10-11 

{see also Safety) 

Radar reflectors. 108 
Radiation fog, 196 
Radio direction finder, 131-132 
Radiobeacons, 116 
Radiobeams, 115-116 
Radiotelephone: 
adjustments, 217 
business function, 204 
distress signal. 210-212, 214 
documents, 217 
getting your weather, 209 
how it works, 204 
how systems should work, 204-205 
introduction. 201 
maintain listening watch, 208 
MAYDAY, 210-212, 214 
monetary forfeitures (fines). 218-219 
obscenity, indecency, profanity, 218 
operations function, 204 
operator license, 213-214 
PAN, 210. 214 
present situation, 205 
receiving a call, 208 
revocation of station license, 218 
safety function, 204 
safety signal, 209-210, 214 
secrecy of communications, 217 
SECURITY, 209-210, 214 

ship-to-ship working frequencies. 202. 203-204, 
214-215 

station indentification, 216 
station license, 213 
station log, 217 

status of Citizens Band on government vessels, 
219-220 

summary of operating practice. 220-221 
suspension of radio operator license. 218 
test transmission procedure, 216 
test transmissions. 208-209 
time limitations. 216 
two radiotelephone systems. 202-204 
156-174 MHz, 202-204 
selection of VHF-FM channels, 203-204 
2-3 MHz, 202, 204. 206 
urgency signal, 210, 214 

voluntarily-equipped vessels, FCC regulations, 
212-213 
weather, 209 
what it is. 201-202 
Rafting. 9 
Raising jib, 183 
Range. 123-124 
Range lights. 113-114 
Ranges, symbols for, 122 
RDF, 131-132 
Reefing. 187 
Reef knot, 160-161 
Relative humidity, 192 
Responsibility as a boatman. 69 
Rigging, sailboat: 
forestay, 172 
halyards, 171 
mainsheet, 171 
rigging your boat, 181 
standing rigging, 172 
Right-of-way. definition, 72 
Ring buoy, 8 
Ring life buoys. 66 
River boating. 223 


241 


Rode. 45 

Roller Gate Dam, 225 
Ropes: 

anchor bend, 162 
armed lead, 166 
becket bend, 161 
belaying a cleat, 164 
bowline. 162-163 
care of fiber line, 159-160 
clove hitch, 161-162 
composition, 157 
dipping the eye, 167-168 
figure eight, 163 
fisherman’s bend, 162 
heaving lines, 166 
introduction, 157 
knots, bends, hitches, 160-164 
lead line, 165 
making up line, 160 
manufacturing and measurement, 158' 
sheet bend, 161 
splices, 164-165 
back, 164 
eye. 165 
short, 164 

square knot (reef knot), 160-161 
strength tables, 157-158 
tow lines, 167-168 
towing, 168 

two half-hitches, 163-164 
Rowboats, 11 
Rudder, 18, 31-34, 171 
Rules of the Road: 
anchor lights, 79 
arc of visibility of lights, 73 
burdened vessel duty, 80 
categories, general, 72 
General Prudential Rule, 80 
Great Lakes, 72, 91-94 
Inland, 86-91 
International, 82-86 
International-Inland, 72 
introduction, 71-72 
jurisdiction, 72 
lights and shapes, 72-73 
lights under international rules, 76-79 
lights under Motorboat Act, 74-76 
privileged vessel duty, 80 
sailing vessels, 98-99 
shapes (day signals), 79 
situations, 81-82 
sound signals. 80 
steering and sailing, 80 
terms defined, 72 
Western Rivers, 72, 94-98 

(see also Western Rivers System) 
when they apply, 80-81 
Rules, racing, 10-11 
Runabouts, 20 
Running, 175 

“Running fix,” 137, 139, 140 


S 

Safety: 
accidents, 1 
anchors, 14 
collisions, 5-6 
condition of boat, 15 
Courtesy Examination, 13 
cruising, 8-9 

anchoring overnight, 8-9 


159 


collision, 9 
compass. 8 
double outlet, 8 
extension cords, 8 
fuel, 8 
line. 8 

places of shelter, 8 
rafting, 9 
spare fuses, 8 
cushion, 8 

emergency procedures, 15 
explosions, 6, 14 
falls overboard, 5 
fatalities, 1 
fires, 6, 14 
float plan, 13-14 
fueling, 6-7 
check for fumes, 7 
flames extinguished, 7 
hose nozzle grounded, 7 
moor boat, 6 
openings closed, 7 
ventilate, 7 

wipe up, wash down, 7 
handling boat, 14 
hunting and fishing, 9-10 
improper loading, 2, 14 
intoxicated operator, 15 
introduction, 1 
laws, 14 
life preserver, 8 
life vest, 8 

lifesaving devices. 7-8, 14 
line, 14 
lookout, 15 
obstructions. 15 
overpowering, 2 
practical hints, 13-15 
racing, 10-11 
class, 10 

closed-course race, 10 
endurance, 11 
open-course race, 10 
power boats, 11 
predicted log race, 10 
rowboats, 11 
rules, 10-11 
sailboats, 10-11 
shell, 11 

“slave labor," 11 
spectator or participant, 11 
radiotelephone, 204 
ring buoy, 8 
selection of boat, 13 
signal, 208-209 
skin diving, 11 
small boat, 13 
state of mind, 15 
swimming, 10 
water skiing, 11,12 
weather conditions, 4-5, 14-15 
broadcasts, 5 

call local weather bureau, 5 
COASTAL WARNING FACILITIES CHARTS, 
4-5, 197 

display points, 4 
flag hoists or lights, 4 
gale, 4 
hurricane, 4 
radiotelephone, 5 
small craft, 4 
storm, 4 

urgent warnings, 5 


weight carrying capabilities, 2-4, 62 
activity, 2 

capacity plate, 2, 3, 62 
gear, 2 

rough guide, 2-3 
rough weather, 4 
sea-state, 2 

total weight capacity table, 3 
Sail trim, 184 
Sailboat parts: 
centerboard. 170 
daggerboard, 170 
hull. 170 
rudder, 171 
tiller, 171 

Sailboat maneuvering: 
beating, 175 
close-hauled, 175, 176 
coming about, 177 
jibing, 180, 181 
points of sailing, 177 
port tack, 177 
reaching, 176 
running, 175 
starboard tack, 177 
tacking, 177, 179, 181 
Sailing, points, 177 
Sails and Parts: 
battens, 171 
clew, 171 
head, 171 
jib, 171, 172 
luff, 172 
mainsail, 171 
sails, 171 
Sailing vessels: 
definition, 72 
Rules of the Road, 98-99 
Sales. 56, 57 
“SC." 134 
Scope, 45 
Scuppers, 17 

Seamanship, marlinspike, 157-168 
(see also Ropes) 

SECURITY, 209-210. 214 
Selection of boat, 13 
Shapes (day signals), 79 
Sheer, 18 
Sheet bend, 161 
Shell racing, 11 
Shelter, places, 8 
Short blast, definition. 72 
Short splice, 164 
Shrouds, 18 

Signals for locks, 109, 110, 230 
Sirens, 109 
Skiffs. 19 

Skiing, water, 11,12 
Skin diving, 1 1 
“Slave labor," 1 1 
Sling Psychrometer, 185 
Small craft, weather, 4 
Sounding devices. 129-130 
Spark plugs, 151, 154 
Spars, 172 
Speed curve: 
constructing. 131 
determining ETA, 131 
speed, time, distance, 130-131 
using. 131 
Speedometers, 130 
Splices. 164-165 
Square knot, 160-161 


242 


Starboard side, 17 
Starboard tack, 177 
Stays, 18 

Steam vessel, definition, 72 
Stern, 17 
Storm, 4 
Swimming, 10 
Symbols, 118-122, 136-137 


T 


Tack, 172 

Tacking, 177, 179, 181 
Tainter Gate Dam, 225-226 
Terminology, 17-27 
Termometer, 193, 195 
Thunderstorms, 199-220 
Tidal Current Tables, 136 
Tiller, 171 
Time, 136 
Tide Tables. 136 
Tools, engine, 151 
Topsides, 17 
Tow lines, 167-168 
Towing, 168 
Trailer, boat: 
safety, 26-27 
selection, 24-26 
Transfers, 56 
Transom, 17 
True wind, 174 
Tunnel drive, 24 
Two cycle engine, 143 
Two half-hitches, 163-164 
2-3 MHz, 202, 204, 206 


l: 


Underway, definition, 72 

Uniform State Waterways Marking System, 110-112 
Unrigging sailboat, 185 
Urgency signal, 210, 214 
Utility outboards, 20 


V 


Vapors, explosive, 66-68 
Variation, compass, 127 
Ventilating, 7 
Ventilation systems, 66 
Vessels: 

documenting, 56-57 
numbering, 55-56 
Ocean Station, 117 
terminology, 17-19 
types defined, 70 
Vest, 8, 65 

VHF-FM channels, 202-204 
Visibility: 
distance, 122-124 
impaired, 50-52 
Visible, definition, 72 


Weather: 

advection fog, 196 
air masses, 195 
Anemometer, 193 
atmospheric stability, 193 
Barometer, 193 
changes with speed, 189 
clouds, 192-193 
dew point, defined, 196 
“dr\' bulb” thermometer, 195 
fog, 196 

forecasting, 195-196 
forecasts, 189 
fronts, 195 
heavy, 46-50 

(see also Handling boat) 
hygrometer, 193 
information, 196-197 
instruments, 193-195 
isobars, 196 
lights, 198 

local conditions, 199 
movement of air over earth, 190-192 
pennants, 197-198 
radiation fog, 196 
radiotelephone, 209 
relative humidity, 192 
safety, 4-5, 14-15 
(see also Safety) 
sailboat, 169 
signs, 189 

sources for further study, 200 
Thermometer, 193 
thunderstorms, 199-200 
watching, 198 

“wet bulb” thermometer, 195 
Weight carrying capability, 2-4, 62 
Weirs, 227 

Western Rivers System: 
aids to navigation, 107-110 
(see also Aids) 
burden and privilege, 95 
conduct in restricted visibility, 96, 98 
fog signals, 96, 98 
Inland Rules don't apply, 72 
power vessels, 94-95 
rivers included, 107 
Rules of the Road, 72, 94-98 
sound signals, 95-96 
speed in fog, 98 

vessel leaving berth or anchorage, 95 
vessels at anchor, 98 
whistle light for towing vessels, 95 
“Wet bulb” thermometer, 195 
Whistle, 69 
Wind, 174 
Wind vanes, 175 
Windward, 17, 19 
Wiping up, 7 

Wooden construction of boats, 21-22 


Warnings, weather, 5 
Washing down, 7 
Water, 144-145, 146 
Water skiing, 11,12 
Waves, 47 


243 



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AIDS TO NAVIGATION ON NAVIGABLE WATERS 
except Western Rivers and Intracoastal Waterway 


LATERAL SYSTEM AS SEEN ENTERING FROM SEAWARD 


PORT SIDE 

ODD NUMBERED AIDS 
□ WHITE OR ■ GREEN LIGHTS 


FIXED = 
FLASHING 
OCCULTING 
QUICK FLASHING 



LIGHTED BUOY O) "P" 

Ro ref 





DAYMARKS “3' 

W 



POINTER 


MID CHANNEL 

NO NUMBERS—MAY BE LETTERED 
□ WHITE LIGHT ONLY 


r 


CAN 





LIGHTED 


BW 




NUN 


BW 

DAYMARK 


BW 
N "B" 
Ra ref 


JUNCTION 

MARK JUNCTIONS AND OBSTRUCTIONS 
NO NUMBERS—MAY BE LETTERED 
INTERRUPTED QUICK FLASHING 


□ WHITE OR 


GREEN 


□ WHITE OR ■ RED 




'M 


I 


RB "D' 
Ra ref 
LIGHTED 




PREFERRED 

CHANNELTO 

STARBOARD 

TOPMOST BAND 
BLACK 




PREFERRED 

CHANNELTO 

PORT 

TOPMOST BAND 
RED 



STARBOARD SIDE 

EVEN NUMBERED AIDS 
□ WHITE OR ■ RED LIGHTS 


FIXED = 
FLASHING 
OCCULTING 
QUICK FLASHINGi 

A 


_8 




LIGHTED BUOY ^ 8 

Ra ref 


i 



NUN 


H " 6 " 
Ra ref 


A 


DAYMARK A “4” 


PR 



POINTER ^ “6” 



^ WOr 
* C Ra ref 


BUOYS HAVING NO LATERAL SIGNIFICANCE-ALL WATERS 

SHAPE HAS NO SIGNIFICANCE 
NO NUMBERS—MAY BE LETTERED 
MAY BE LIGHTED 
ANY COLOR LIGHT EXCEPT 
RED OR GREEN 


SPECIAL 

PURPOSE 


' C Ra ref 


QUARANTINE 

ANCHORAGE 


FIXED 


FLASHING 

OCCULTINGC 


N 



Ra ref 
ANCHORAGE 


^BW 

Ra ref 


ffl 


FISH NET 
AREA 


GW 

• Ra ref 
DREDGING 


UNLIGHTED 



DANGER 



EXCLUSION 

AREA 


DAYMARKS HAVING NO LATERAL SIGNIFICANCE 

MAY BE LETTERED 























































































AIDS TO NAVIGATION ON THE INTRACOASTAL WATERWAY 


AS SEEN ENTERING FROM NORTH AND EAST-PROCEEDING TO SOUTH AND WEST 


PORT SIDE 

ODD NUMBERED AIDS 
□ WHITE OR ■ GREEN LIGHTS 

FIXED - OCCULTING I ■ 

FLASHING r—^ QUICK FLASHING a 


a 


LIGHTED BUOY 


I 



$ 

• C"9" 
Ra ret 


SW-I 


“5”, 


a 


A DAYMARKS A 


PB-I 


W 


^7" 


POINTER 


SB-SY 



'‘3”i 




DUAL 

PURPOSE DUAL 
DAYMARKS PURPOSE 

BUOYS 


C "5" 

Ra ref 


JA I, 


JB-SY 


N "6" 
Ro ret 



'*A 

RB 


Ajr-sy 

A 


A"” 

RB 


JUNCTION 

MARK JUNCTIONS AND OBSTRUCTIONS 
NO NUMBERS—MAY BE LETTERED 
INTERRUPTED QUICK FLASHING 


□ WHITE OR ■ GREEN LIGHTS □ WHITE OR ■ RED LIGHTS 


a 


9 RB 

"f'Ro ref "N" 
LIGHTED 



PREFERRED CHANNEL 


CAN 


TO STARBOARD 

TOPMOST BAND 
BLACK 


, RB 
C "A" 

Ra ref 


OMAINntL IKK 

TO PORT Pm 

TOPMOST BAND IB 
RED 

0 jj 

, RB^ 

^ NUN 

no ret 




A” 

RB 


JB-1 



JR-I 


MID CHANNEL 
DAYMARK 



STARBOARD SIDE 

EVEN NUMBERED AIDS 
□ WHITE OR ■ RED LIGHTS 

FIXED OCCULTING ■ M 

FLASHINGKKHD QUICK FLASHINGKn 


DUAL PURPOSE MARKING USED WHERE THE 
ICW AND OTHER WATERWAYS COINCIDE 





LIGHTED BUOY 


" 8 " 
Ra ref 


fi 


NUN 



• N “6" 
Ra ref 


A R 

A“4” 


POINTER 


jAi 


DUAL 


N "6" 

PURPOSE DUAL 
DAYMARKS PURPOSE 
BUOYS 

SB-TY 


“5” 




C "5" 

Ra ref 


JB-TY 


When following the ICW from New Jersey through Texas, aAshould 
be kept to your starboard hand and aQ should be kept to your port hand, 
regardless of the color of the aid on which they appear. 


'‘C2^i 

RB 



A 

AD" 

RB 


E -90 

















































































AIDS TO NAVIGATION ON WESTERN RIVERS 


PORT SIDE 

□ WHITE OR ■ GREEN LIGHTS 
FLASHING 


A 




LIGHTED BUOY 


I 


CAN 


□ 


PASSING DAYMARK 


SW 



176.9 


MILE BOARD 


AS SEEN ENTERING FROM SEAWARD 


JUNCTION 

MARK JUNCTIONS AND OBSTRUCTIONS 
INTERRUPTED QUICK FLASHING 


PREFERRED CHANNEL PREFERRED CHANNEL 

TO STARBOARD TO PORT 

TOPMOST BAND BLACK TOPMOST BAND RED 


□ WHITE OR 
■ GREEN LIGHTS 


a 


□ WHITE OR 
y RED LIGHTS 

A 


LIGHTED 



CAN 


s 


NUN 


H 



JB 


JR 


STARBOARD SIDE 

□ WHITE OR B RED LIGHTS 
GROUP FLASHING (2) 



LIGHTED BUOY 


I 


NUN 



PASSING DAYMARK 



123.5 


MILE BOARD 


RANGE DAYMARKS 


NAVIGABLE WATERS 
EXCEPT ICW 


KWB 

U 



KRB KBW KBR 

[HDD 


INTRACOASTAL 

WATERWAY 


KWB-I 

I 


KWR-I 




KRB-I 

I 


MAY BE LETTERED 


m 




































































UNIFORM STATE WATERWAY MARKING SYSTEM 


STATE WATERS AND DESIGNATED STATE WATERS FOR PRIVATE AIDS TO NAVIGATION 

REGULATORY MARKERS 



BOAT 

EXCLUSION 

AREA 


EXPLANATION MAY BE PLACED OUTSIDE 
THE CROSSED DIAMOND SHAPE, SUCH AS 
DAM, RAPIDS, SWIM AREA. ETC. 



DANGER 


THE NATURE OF DANGER MAY BE IN¬ 
DICATED INSIDE THE DIAMOND SHAPE, 

SUCH AS ROCK. WRECK, SHOAL. DAM, ETC. 



CONTROLLED 

AREA 


TYPE OF CONTROL IS INDICATED IN 
THE CIRCLE. SUCH AS 5 MPH, NO 
ANCHORING, ETC. 



FOR DISPLAYING INFORMATION SUCH 
AS DIRECTIONS, DISTANCES, LOCATIONS, ETC. 



BUOY USED TO DISPUY 
REGULATORY MARKERS 


MAY SHOW WHITE LIGHT 
MAY BE LETTERED 


AIDS TO NAVIGATION 


MAY SHOW WHITE REFLECTOR OR LIGHT 




MOORING 

BUOY 



RED-STRIPED 
WHITE BUOY 




BLACK-TOPPED RED-TOPPED 

WHITE BUOY WHITE BUOY 



WHITE WITH BLUE BAND 

MAY SHOW WHITE 
REFLECTOR OR LIGHT 


MAY BE LETTERED 
DO NOT PASS BETWEEN 
BUOY AND NEAREST SHORE 


MAY BE NUMBERED 

PASS TO NORTH PASS TO SOUTH 

OR EAST OF BUOY OR WEST OF BUOY 


CARDINAL SYSTEM 


MAY SHOW GREEN REFLECTOR OR LIGHT 


MAY SHOW RED REFLECTOR OR LIGHT 



SOLID RED AND SOLID BLACK BUOYS 



USUALLY FOUND IN PAIRS 
PASS BETWEEN THESE BUOYS 


LOOKING UPSTREAM 



LATERAL SYSTEM 






































MORSE CODE, CODE FLAGS, PENNANTS, AND PHONETIC ALPHABET 


Alphabet Phonetic Pronunciation 

Flags Letter Alphabet Guide 


[1 

A 

ALFA 

AL FAH 

■ 

B 

BRAVO 

BRAH VOH 

B 

C 

CHARLIE 

CHAR LEE 

B 

D 

DELTA 

DELL TAH 

a 

E 

ECHO 

ECK OH 


F 

FOXTROT 

FOKS TROT 






G 

GOLF 

GOLF 

a 

H 

HOTEL 

HOH TELL 


1 

INDIA 

IN DEE AH 

£ 

J 

JULIETT 

JEW LEE ETT 

[| 

1 ^ 

KILO 

KEY LOH 


1 L 

LIMA 

LEE MAH 






1 M 

MIKE 

MIKE 


N 

NOVEMBER 

NO VEM BER 






O 

OSCAR 

OSS CAH 

□ 

P 

PAPA 

PAH PAH 


9 

QUEBEC 

KEH BECK 

H- 

R 

ROMEO 

ROW ME OH 

L?. 

S 

SIERRA 

SEE AIR RAH 

□ 

T 

TANGO 

TANG GO 


International 
Morse Code 



Alphabet Phonetic Pronunciation International 

Flags Letter Alphabet Guide Morse Code 



U UNIFORM 

V VICTOR 


W WHISKEY 

X XRAY 

Y YANKEE 


Z ZULU 


YOU NEE FORM 

VIK TAH 

WISS KEY 

ECKS RAY 

YANG KEY 

ZOO LOO 


Numeral Pronunciation International 

Pennants Number Guide Morse Code 




REPEATER PENNANT 





































A COMPLETE HANDBOOK 
FOR ALL BOATERS 


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